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United States International Trade Commission U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers December 2022 Publication Number: 5397 Investigation Number: 332-590 Commissioners David S. Johanson, Chairman Rhonda K. Schmidtlein Jason E. Kearns Amy A. Karpel Catherine B. DeFilippo Director, Office of Operations William M. Powers Director, Office of Economics Address all communications to Office of External Relations (externalrelations@usitc.gov) United States International Trade Commission Washington, DC 20436 United States International Trade Commission U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers December 2022 Publication Number: 5397 Investigation Number: 332 -590 U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 4 | www.usitc.gov This report was prepared principally by: Project Leaders Alan K. Fox, Samantha Schreiber Office of Industry and Competitiveness Analysis Simon Adhanom, Mahnaz Khan, Steven LeGrand Office of Economics Saad Ahmad, Tamara Gurevich, Ross Jestrab, Tricia Mueller, Karen Thome , Ravinder Ubee Office of Tariff Affairs and Trade Agreements Ryan Kane Office of Analysis and Research Services Onslow Hall Content Reviewers Lesley Ahmed, Chang Hong, Natalie Hanson Statistical Reviewers Maureen Letostak, Russell Duncan Editorial Reviewers Judy Edelhoff, Brian Rose Production Support Justin Holbein, Gwenetta Duvall Under the direction of David Riker Chief, Research Division Office of Economics Table of Contents United States International Trade Commission | 5 Table of Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................11 Glossary of Terms .............................................................................................15 Executive Summary ..........................................................................................17 The Request and Approach........................................................................................................17 Main Findings .............................................................................................................................18 Overview of Haiti-Eligible U.S. Preference Programs ............................................................18 Summary of the Impact of the U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy ....................20 Overview of Haiti’s Economy ................................................................................................. 22 Case Studies ...........................................................................................................................26 Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................31 Scope ..........................................................................................................................................31 Analytical Approach ...................................................................................................................31 Report Organization ...................................................................................................................32 Data Availability and Limitations ...............................................................................................32 Trade Data..............................................................................................................................32 Employment Data ..................................................................................................................33 Macroeconomic Data.............................................................................................................33 Overview of Haitian Economy, Geography, and Preference Programs.....................................33 Chapter 2 Preference Programs ...................................................................37 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................37 Trade Preference Programs .......................................................................................................37 GSP .........................................................................................................................................41 CBERA .....................................................................................................................................44 CBTPA .....................................................................................................................................47 Haiti-specific Trade Preference Program (HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP) .........................................49 Chapter 3 Overview of the Haitian Economy, Trade, Workers, and Competitiveness...............................................................................................55 Overview of Haiti’s Economy .....................................................................................................55 Key Macroeconomic Indicators .............................................................................................55 Structure of Haitian Economy ................................................................................................60 Haiti’s Overall Trade in Goods and Services ..........................................................................62 U.S. Imports from Haiti between 1980 and 2021 ..................................................................66 Investment in Haiti .................................................................................................................73 Haiti’s Labor Market, Working Conditions, and Wages.............................................................76 Haiti’s Population and Employment ......................................................................................76 Working Conditions in Haiti ...................................................................................................82 Nominal and Inflation-adjusted Wages .................................................................................84 U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 6 | www.usitc.gov Competitiveness of the Haitian Economy..................................................................................88 Overview ................................................................................................................................88 Business Environment............................................................................................................91 Infrastructure .........................................................................................................................96 Workforce Competitiveness ................................................................................................101 Haitian Products with Potential for Increased Exports............................................................103 Chapter 4 Case Studies ..............................................................................109 Case Study: Haiti’s Apparel Industry ........................................................................................109 Summary ..............................................................................................................................109 Description of Haiti’s Apparel Industry ................................................................................110 Employment and Wages ......................................................................................................119 Special Apparel Provisions in Haiti’s Preference Programs .................................................122 Analysis of Historical Trends in Production and Exports and Utilization of Preferences ....128 Working Conditions and Labor Standards in Haiti’s Apparel Sector ...................................141 Case Study: Haiti’s Mango Industry .........................................................................................153 Summary ..............................................................................................................................153 Description of Haiti’s Mango Industry and Workers ...........................................................153 Supply Chain.........................................................................................................................157 Case Study: Haiti’s Sporting Goods Industry............................................................................163 Summary ..............................................................................................................................163 Description of Haiti’s Sporting Goods Industry ...................................................................164 Firms, Employment, and Wages in the Industry..................................................................165 Historical and Current Trends in Production and Exports ...................................................169 Bibliography ...................................................................................................175 Appendix A Request Letter ........................................................................203 Appendix B Federal Register Notice ...........................................................207 Appendix C Calendar of Witnesses ............................................................213 Appendix D Summary of Views of Interested Parties..................................219 Appendix E Tables for Figures ....................................................................225 Appendix F Supplemental Tables ...............................................................247 Boxes Box 2.1 The Cambodia Textile Trade Agreement: Precursor to TAICNAR .............................................. 52 Box 3.1 Timeline Surrounding Haiti Sanctions and Embargo from 1991–94 .......................................... 67 Box 3.2 The COVID-19 Pandemic and Its Effects on Haitian Workers .................................................... 82 Box 3.3 Effects of Natural Disasters on Haiti’s Infrastructure ............................................................. 100 Box 3.4 Live Eel Exports from Haiti ................................................................................................... 108 Box 4.1 Co-Production in the Apparel Sector between Haiti and the Dominican Republic.................... 119 Box 4.2 Understanding the Baseball Manufacturing Process.............................................................. 167 Table of Contents United States International Trade Commission | 7 Figures Figure ES.1 A timeline of U.S. trade preference programs relevant to Haiti, 1975–2025 ........................ 18 Figure ES.2 Total U.S. merchandise imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 ..................................................... 24 Figure ES.3 U.S. apparel impor ts from Haiti, 1980– 2021 ..................................................................... 27 Figure ES.4 U.S. Imports of baseballs and softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 ........................................... 29 Figure 1.1 Map of Haiti, highlighting key cities.................................................................................... 34 Figure 2.1 A timeline of U.S. trade preference programs relevant to Haiti, 1975–2025 ......................... 41 Figure 3.1 Haiti’s annual income per capita 2000–2021 ...................................................................... 56 Figure 3.2 Inflation in Haiti and in Latin America and the Caribbean, by year, 2000–2021 ..................... 58 Figure 3.3 Official exchange rate, gourde per U.S. dollar, 2000–2021................................................... 58 Figure 3.4 Haiti’s current account balance as percent of GDP, 2000–2021............................................ 59 Figure 3.5 Haiti’s trade as percent of GDP, 2000– 2021........................................................................ 60 Figure 3.6 Top importers of goods from Haiti, in certain years, 2005–20 .............................................. 62 Figure 3.7 Top products exported from Haiti, in certain years, 2005–20............................................... 63 Figure 3.8 Top exporters of goods to Haiti, in certain years, 2005–20 .................................................. 64 Figure 3.9 Top products imported by Haiti, in certain years, 2005–20 .................................................. 65 Figure 3.10 Haiti’s trade in services, 2000–2021 ................................................................................. 66 Figure 3.11 Total U.S. merchandise imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 ..................................................... 69 Figure 3.12 Selected top U.S. imports from Haiti, 1980– 2021 .............................................................. 72 Figure 3.13 Haiti’s inward FDI stock, 2000– 2021................................................................................. 75 Figure 3.14 Haiti’s employment by sector, in certain years .................................................................. 79 Figure 3.15 Annual growth rate of output per worker in Haiti, 2010–21............................................. 103 Figure 4.1 U.S. apparel imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 ..................................................................... 129 Figure 4.2 U.S. Imports under the Knit Apparel TPL classified under HTS subheading 9820.61.35, 2008– 21 ...................................................................................................................... 132 Figure 4.3 U.S. imports under the Woven Apparel TPL classified under HTS 9820.62.05, 2007– 21 ...................................................................................................................... 133 Figure 4.4 U.S. imports of T-Shirts from Haiti under HTS subheadings 6109.10 and 6109.90, 1989– 2021 ....................................................................................................................... 137 Figure 4.5 U.S. imports of mangoes from Haiti by quantity, 2013–21. ................................................ 160 Figure 4.6 Share of the quantity of U.S. imports of mangoes by source, 2021..................................... 162 Figure 4.7 Illustration of baseball manufacturing components .......................................................... 167 Figure 4.8 U.S. Imports of baseballs and softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 ........................................... 169 Figure 4.9 Tariffs on baseballs and softballs, 1963–2000 ................................................................... 170 Figure 4.10 U.S. imports of baseballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 ............................................................. 171 Figure 4.11 U.S. imports of softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 .............................................................. 173 Tables Table ES.1 U.S. imports for consumption from Haiti under preference programs, 2000 –2021 ............... 20 Table 1.1 Summary of in-scope U.S. preference programs for products from Haiti, by date enacted................................................................................................................................ 35 Table 2.1 Number of U.S. tariff lines by normal trade relations (NTR) duty rate and preference program eligibility, 2022 .................................................................................................. 38 U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 8 | www.usitc.gov Table 2.2 Count of U.S. tariff lines by preference program eligibility, 2022........................................... 39 Table 2.3 U.S. imports for consumption from Haiti coming in under trade preference programs, 2000– 2021 ....................................................................................................................... 40 Table 2.4 Summary of selected program features and corresponding eligibility requirements............... 54 Table 3.1 Haiti’s major economic indicators, in certain years 2000–2021 ............................................. 56 Table 3.2 Composition of Haiti’s GDP by broad sector, in certain years ................................................ 61 Table 3.3 U.S. imports of the top 20 Tariff System of the United States (TSUS) statistical reporting numbers from Haiti in the 1980s, by product category and period ......................... 71 Table 3.4 Haiti’s population statistics, in certain years ........................................................................ 77 Table 3.5 Haiti’s employment, in certain years ................................................................................... 78 Table 3.6 Status of Haiti’s employment, in certain years ..................................................................... 80 Table 3.7 Haiti’s employment by occupation, in certain years ............................................................. 80 Table 3.8 Proportion of informal employment in total employment, 2012 ........................................... 81 Table 3.9 Working hours lost in Haiti as a result of the COVID-19 crisis, 2020– 22 ................................. 82 Table 3.10 Mean weekly hours actually worked of prime-age employed persons, 2012 ........................ 83 Table 3.11 Proportion of Haiti’s population covered by social protection floors/systems, 2020 ............. 84 Table 3.12 Haiti’s labor income distribution, in certain years............................................................... 85 Table 3.13 Haiti’s daily minimum wage changes, by announcement date and by industry, 2014–22........................................................................................................................................... 87 Table 3.14 Select rankings of Haiti’s individual indicators in the 2019 Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) ................................................................................................... 90 Table 3.15 Haiti’s labor force statistics, in certain years .................................................................... 101 Table 3.16 Top 20 products by NRCA index, by HS 4-digit heading (according to constructed Haitian exports in 2015–19) ..................................................................... 106 Table 3.17 Constructed Haitian exports of live eels by destination market, 2015–19 .......................... 108 Table 4.1 Largest apparel manufacturing firms in Haiti, by country of ownership,location, and number of employees .............................................................................................................. 117 Table 4.2 Haiti’s apparel employment figures for selected years, 1980–2022 ..................................... 121 Table 4.3 Daily average or minimum wage rates in certain years, 1979–2022..................................... 122 Table 4.4 CBTPA: Requirements concerning origin of inputs and processes, value added, and quantitative limits........................................................................................................................... 124 Table 4.5 HOPE I apparel provisions................................................................................................. 125 Table 4.6 HOPE II apparel provisions................................................................................................ 127 Table 4.7 HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP: Requirements concerning origin of inputs and processes, value added, and quantitative limits ................................................................................................ 128 Table 4.8 Woven, knit, and value-added apparel TPLs under HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP, levels and utilization rates, 2008–21 ................................................................................................ 131 Table 4.9 Preference program rules for brassieres under CBTPA, CAFTA-DR, HOPE I, and HOPE II .................................................................................................................................... 135 Table 4.10 Top U.S. imports from Haiti, by article of apparel, 1990.................................................... 136 Table 4.11 U.S. imports from Haiti, by apparel garment, 2000........................................................... 138 Table 4.12 U.S. imports from Haiti, by article of apparel, 2010 .......................................................... 138 Table 4.13 U.S. imports from Haiti, by article of apparel, 2020 .......................................................... 139 Table of Contents United States International Trade Commission | 9 Table 4.14 Better Work Haiti Reports: Percentage of Factories in Noncompliance with Working Time Standards, 2009– 22 .................................................................................................. 143 Table 4.15 Better Work Haiti Reports: Percentage of Factories in Noncompliance with Compensation Standards, 2009–22.................................................................................................. 144 Table 4.16 Better Work Haiti Reports: Percentage of Factories in Noncompliance with Compensation Standards, 2009–22.................................................................................................. 148 Table 4.17 Better Work Haiti Reports: Percentage of Factories in Noncompliance in Occupational Safety and Health (OSH), 2009–22............................................................................... 152 Table 4.18 U.S. baseball imports by source country, 2017–21 ........................................................... 172 Table 4.19 U.S. softball imports by source country, 2017–21............................................................. 173 Table 4.20 U.S. imports of sporting goods products from Haiti excluding baseballs and softballs, 1980– 2021 ................................................................................................................ 174 Table E.1 A timeline of preference program's effective and extension dates since 1975, by program status........................................................................................................................... 227 Table E.2 Haiti's income per capita 2000–2021................................................................................. 228 Table E.3 Inflation in consumer prices, in Haiti and in Latin America and the Caribbean, by year, 2000–2021 ........................................................................................................................ 229 Table E.4 Official exchange rate, gourde per U.S. dollar, 2000–2021 .................................................. 230 Table E.5 Haiti's current account balance as percent of GDP, 2000–2021 ........................................... 231 Table E.6 Haiti's trade as percent of GDP, 2000– 2021 ....................................................................... 232 Table E.7 Top importers of g oods from Haiti, in certain years............................................................ 232 Table E.8 Top products exported from Haiti, in certain years............................................................. 233 Table E.9 Top exporters of goods to Haiti, in certain years ................................................................ 233 Table E.10 Top products imported by Haiti, in certain years .............................................................. 234 Table E.11 Haiti's trade in services, 2000– 2021 ................................................................................ 234 Table E.12 Total U.S. merchandise imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 .................................................... 235 Table E.13 Selected top U.S. imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 ............................................................. 236 Table E.14 Haiti’s inward FDI stock, 2000– 2021 ................................................................................ 237 Table E.15 Haiti’s employment by sector, certain years..................................................................... 237 Table E.16 Annual growth rate of output per worker in Haiti, 2010–21 .............................................. 237 Table E.17 U.S. apparel imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 .................................................................... 238 Table E.18 U.S. Imports under the knit apparel TPL classified under HTS 9820.61.35, 2008– 21 ...................................................................................................................... 239 Table E.19 U.S. imports under the woven apparel TPL classified under HTS 9820.61.05, 2007– 21 ...................................................................................................................... 239 Table E.20 U.S. imports of T-Shirts from Haiti under HTS subheadings 6109.10 and 6109.90, 1989–2021.................................................................................................... 240 Table E.21 U.S. imports of mangoes from Haiti by quantity, 2013–21 ................................................ 240 Table E.22 Share of the quantity of U.S. imports of mangoes by source, 2021 .................................... 241 Table E.23 U.S. imports of baseballs and softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 .......................................... 242 Table E.24 Tariffs on baseballs and softballs, 1963–2000 .................................................................. 243 Table E.25 U.S. imports of baseballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 .............................................................. 244 Table E.26 U.S. imports of softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 ............................................................... 245 Table F.1 Top 20 U.S. imports from Haiti, 1980– 88 ........................................................................... 249 U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 10 | www.usitc.gov Table F.2 Top 50 products by NRCA index, by HS 4-digit heading (according to constructed Haitian exports in 2015–19) ..................................................................... 249 Abbreviations, Acronyms and Glossary United States International Trade Commission | 11 Abbreviations and Acronyms Acronyms Term AAFA American Apparel and Footwear Association ADIH Association des Industries d’Haïti [Industrial Association of Haiti] AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act AMS Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA) APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA) BEA Bureau of Economic Analysis (USDOC) BDC beneficiary developing country BTI Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index CAFTA-DR Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement CARICOM Caribbean Common Market CBERA Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act CBI Caribbean Basin Initiative CBP U.S. Customs and Border Protection CBTPA Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act CES constant elasticity of substitution CFI Center for Facilitation of Investments CIA Central Intelligence Agency CODEVI Compagnie de Développement Industriel [Industrial Development Company] CRS Congressional Research Service CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies EB Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs (USDOS) ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN) EDIS Electronic Docket Information System (USITC) EIA U.S. Energy Information Agency (USDOE) EIAP Earned Import Allowance Program EIU Economist Intelligence Unit FDI foreign direct investment FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas FTA free trade agreement FTE full-time equivalent GALs guaranteed access levels GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GCI Global Competitiveness Index (WEF) GDP gross domestic product GOSTTRA Groupement Syndical des Travailleurs du Textile pour la Réexportation d’Assemblage [Union of Textile Workers for Re-export Assembly] GSP Generalized System of Preferences GTA Global Trade Atlas HELP Haiti Economic Lift Program Act of 2010 HOPE I Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2006 HOPE II Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2008 HS Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System or Harmonized System (global tariff schedule) HTS Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States IFC International Finance Corporation IJDH Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti ILO International Labour Organization U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 12 | www.usitc.gov Acronyms Term IMF International Monetary Fund ICT information and communication technology ITA International Trade Administration (USDOC) LDBDC least-developed beneficiary developing country LDC least-developed country (UN) LNG liquefied natural gas LPI Logistic Performance Index (World Bank) MFN most-favored nation (see also NTR) mt metric ton NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NBER National Bureau of Economic Research n.e.s.o.i. not elsewhere specified or included NGO nongovernmental organization NRCA normalized revealed comparative advantage index nspf not specifically provided for NTR normal trade relations (U.S. term; same as MFN elsewhere) OFATMA Office d'Assurance Accidents du Travail, Maladie et Maternité [Insurance Office for Occupational Injury, Sickness and Maternity] ONA National Office for Pension Insurance OTEXA Office of Textiles and Apparel (USDOC) PPE personal protective equipment PPP purchasing power parity PRW production-related worker R&D research and development RCA revealed comparative advantage index ROOs rules of origin SIDS small islands developing states SMEs square meter equivalents SOCOWA Sendika Ouvriye Codevi nan Wanament [Union of Workers of CODEVI] SOFEZO Syndicat des Ouvriers et Employés de la Zone Franche [Union of Workers and Employees of the Free Zone] TAICNAR Technical Assistance Improvement and Compliance Needs Assessment and Remediation TPL tariff preference level TRQ tariff-rate quota TSUS Tariff Schedules of the United States (replaced by HTS, January 1, 1989) UN United Nations UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and Development UNDP UN Development Program USAID U.S. Agency for International Development USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture USDHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security USDOC U.S. Department of Commerce USDOE U.S. Department of Energy USDOL U.S. Department of Labor USDOS U.S. Department of State USFIA U.S. Fashion Industry Association USITC U.S. International Trade Commission USTR Office of the U.S. Trade Representative Abbreviations, Acronyms and Glossary United States International Trade Commission | 13 Acronyms Term UTE/MEF Unité Technique d’Exécution du Ministère de l’Economie et des Finances [Technical Execution Unit of the Ministry of Economy and Finance] WEF World Economic Forum WRAP Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production WTO World Trade Organization 14 | www.usitc.gov Glossary of Terms United States International Trade Commission | 15 Glossary of Terms Term Definition Association des Industries d’Haïti [Industrial Association of Haiti] (ADIH) An association of private sector companies in Haiti that advocates for and promotes Haitian interests. It has historically been instrumental in the lobbying and implementation of U.S.-Haiti preference programs. Compagnie de Développement Industriel [Industrial Development Company] (CODEVI) Free Zone A zone in the northern city of Ouanaminthe on the border of Haiti and the Dominican Republic that houses several apparel factories. The factories in the zone receive special treatment on customs duties and controls, taxation, immigration, capital investment, and foreign trade, where domestic and foreign investors can provide services, import, store, produce, export, and re- export goods. cumulation Cumulation in the context of textiles and apparel refers to yarns or fabrics from one specified partner country that can be used in another specified partner country and still qualify for duty-free benefits from the importing country. In this report, the term is used to refer to the ability of a Haitian producer to use inputs from the U.S. or another specified partner country and still qualify for duty-free treatment in the United States. Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) Trade agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The Agreement entered into force for the United States, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in 2006, for the Dominican Republic in 2007, and for Costa Rica in 2009. International Labour Organization (ILO) A UN agency that brings together governments, employers, and workers of 187 member states to set labor standards, develop policies, and devise programs promoting decent work for all women and men. It provides statistics and databases and research related to labor topics. For more information, see https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) A private, nonpartisan U.S. organization that facilitates investigation and analysis of major economic issues. It disseminates research findings to academics, public and private sector decision-makers, and the public by posting working papers and convening scholarly conferences. For more information, see https://www.nber.org/about-nber. normalized revealed comparative advantage (NRCA) index A measure for calculating the relative advantage or disadvantage a country has in exporting certain goods. The NRCA index was used by the Commission to analyze the export potential of goods produced by Haiti and presented in chapter 3 of this report. U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 16 | www.usitc.gov Term Definition square meter equivalent (SME) A notional, common unit of quantity measurement used to determine quota limits for duty-free access across apparel categories. For apparel, conversion factors set in a free trade agreement (FTA) or in the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (HTS) are used to convert units of measure such as units, dozens, or kilograms into SMEs. tariff preference level (TPL) Quantitative limits set by an FTA or a duty preference program for certain non-originating textiles and apparel goods that may be entitled to preferential tariff treatment if the goods meet the provisions of the preference programs. A TPL permit s a limited quantity of specified finished textile, apparel goods, or both to enter the U.S. market at preferential duty rates. Once the TPL is reached, goods may still be entered but at higher rates of duty. For Haiti, there are three types of TPLs in effect (with certain exceptions): value-added TPL, woven apparel TPL, and knit apparel TPL. Technical Assistance Improvement and Compliance Needs Assessment and Remediation (TAICNAR) program A program established pursuant to the Haiti-specific preference program by Haiti in cooperation with the ILO and implemented by the ILO’s Better Work Haiti program to conduct firm-level inspections and monitoring to help Haitian apparel factories comply with core labor standards, Haitian labor laws, and occupational health and safety rules. Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 17 Executive Summary This report provides information and analysis on the Haitian economy, U.S. preference programs that benefit Haiti, and the impacts of these preference programs on the Haitian economy and workers. The United States is Haiti’s largest trading partner, with Haitian exports to the United States comprising more than 80 percent of Haiti’s total exports in recent years. The Haiti-eligible U.S. preference programs have played an important role in the trade relationship between the two countries and the development of Haiti’s apparel sector. They also help Haiti’s apparel sector continue to attract investment despite a difficult political, social, and environmental landscape. The Request and Approach The U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and Means (House Ways and Means Committee or Committee) requested an investigation and report in a letter to the U.S. Trade Commission (Commission or USITC) dated February 22, 2022, to gather information and analysis on Haiti’s economy and trade. Specifically, the Committee requested that the report analyze the impact of U.S. preference programs on Haiti’s economy and workers, including on select industries in a series of case studies. The Committee also requested that the Commission solicit input from as diverse an array of voices as possible. As requested by the Committee, the Commission gathered information from a variety of sources. The Commission held a public hearing on May 26, 2022, to gather information and views of interested parties on topics relevant to the report such as market trends, competitiveness, and compliance with core labor standards. The hearing began with testimony from Bocchit Edmond, Ambassador of the Republic of Haiti to the United States of America. Two panels followed Ambassador Edmond’s testimony. The first panel focused on worker issues, with six witnesses representing different Haitian labor unions and one university professor who conducts research on the effectiveness of the Better Work programs. The second panel featured representatives from U.S. apparel brands, U.S. apparel industry associations, and Haitian industry representatives. In the course of the investigation, Commission staff also met with industry representatives, U.S. and Haitian government officials, union officials and representatives, and subject matter experts to obtain a more complete view of the economic situation in Haiti, as well as the role and scope of U.S. preference programs in shaping the Haitian economy. Extensive participation by Haitian labor unions and the Solidarity Center, a nonprofit organization, was critical to informing the analysis of the worker experience in Haiti. This report also relies on trade data covering the years 1980–2021, as reported by the United States and Haiti’s other trade partners, and other economic data covering 2000–2021 to analyze the impacts of U.S. trade preference programs on Haiti. U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 18 | www.usitc.gov Main Findings Overview of Haiti- Eligible U.S. Preference Programs Certain U.S. imports from Haiti may qualify for the following U.S. preference programs: the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP); the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (CBERA); the United States Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA); and the Haiti-specific trade preference program comprising the Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2006 (HOPE I), the Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement Act of 2008 (HOPE II), and the Haiti Economic Lift Program Act of 2010 (HELP Act). As described in c hapter 2, each successive program expanded benefits while adding or strengthening eligibility criteria. Qualifying imports from Haiti have received duty -free treatment under one or more of t hese programs since 1975 (figure ES.1). Figure ES.1 A timeline of U.S. trade preference programs relevant to Haiti, 1975– 2025 This figure uses icons to represent trade preference programs in a timeline. Underlying data for the figure appears in Appendix E, table E.1. Source: USITC compiled from dates of entry into force or changes to dates of termination. For GSP: 19 U.S.C. § 2465 (Notes); CBERA: 19 U.S.C. § 2706 (Notes); CBTPA and HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP : Trade and Development Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-200. Haiti Economic Lift Program Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-171. Extension of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act, Pub. L. No. 116-164. Note: U.S. importers can choose among GSP, CBERA, CBTPA, HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP to claim duty -free benefits . These programs are therefore listed on separate rows in this figure. White ga ps on the GSP timeline indicate that the GSP program was expired for the entire year. Years that have both a green diamond and an x are years in which the program both expired and was renewed. The GSP, which became effective in 1976, was the first of several trade preference programs that provided duty-free treatment for many U.S. imports from Haiti. Established by Title V of the Trade Act of 1974, it authorizes the President, subject to certain conditions, to provide duty-free treatment to a wide range of goods from designated developing countries, including Haiti. One goal of the program was to encourage economic diversification and export development within the developing world. More than Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 19 5,000 tariff lines in the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (HTS) are currently eligible for duty-free treatment under GSP. CBERA, the second- oldest U.S. trade preference program for which Haiti is eligible was enacted in 1983 with the support of the a dministration of President Ronald Reagan. Created by Title II of Pub. L. No. 98- 67 in 1983, it authorized the President to extend additional preferential tariff treatment to U.S. imports from a list of specific Caribbean Basin countries and territories, including Haiti, subject to certain conditions set out in the statute. Two important goal s of CBERA were to counter perceived Cuban and Soviet influence in the region and to promote U.S. trade and investment in the region. The CBERA program offers duty-free treatment for more than 5,000 tariff lines, which significantly overlap with those included under the GSP program. Unlike the GSP program, the CBERA program was made permanent in 1990. Title II of the Trade and Development Act of 2000, enacted May 18, 2000, built on the CBERA program by creating the CBTPA program. The CBTPA program was designed as a step for beneficiary countries toward the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)—a proposed Pan-American free trade agreement. The goal of CBTPA was to provide countries in the Caribbean Basin with similar rates of duty to what Mexico received through the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). CBTPA provides preferential access to many products originally excluded from the CBERA and GSP programs. CBTPA is the first instance of the United States authorizing duty-free treatment for imports of qualifying cotton, wool, and manmade-fiber apparel imports from the Caribbean Basin region. Haiti was and continues to be eligible for the GSP, CBERA, and CBTPA programs; however, in the first decade of 2000, new Haiti-specific trade preferences were enacted. The Haiti-specific trade preference program—comprising HOPE I, HOPE II, and HELP—expanded and enhanced trade benefits for Haiti and gave Haitian apparel producers more flexibility in sourcing yarns and fabrics. The Haiti-specific program, like CBTPA, built on the CBERA program. HOPE I provided duty-free treatment for a limited amount of apparel produced in and imported from Haiti with more flexible sourcing rules than under CBTPA. For example, more flexible sourcing was available for apparel where at least 50 percent of the value of inputs or costs of processing (e.g., assembling an entire garment or knitting it to shape) came from Haiti, the United States, or any country that is a free trade agreement partner with the United States or is a beneficiary of the CBTPA program, the AGOA program, or the Andean Trade Preferences Act. HOPE II was designed to address concerns raised about HOPE I, such as the limited duration of the legislation’s benefits, which could deter investment, and HOPE I’s complexity and ambiguity, which reportedly delayed and discouraged the use of the trade benefits. HOPE II provided additional ways, under simplified rules, that Haitian apparel might qualify for duty-free treatment. It also called for a new labor-related capacity-building and monitoring program in the apparel sector, known as the Technical Assistance Improvement and Compliance Needs Assessment and Remediation (TAICNAR) program, to assess compliance with core labor standards and assist the government of Haiti and Haitian producers in complying with core labor standards. HELP is the third Haiti-specific legislation and was enacted on May 24, 2010. An underlying consideration of the HELP Act was to aid Haiti’s recovery from a major earthquake in January 2010 and to offer additional preferences to make it more cost effective for U.S. companies to import apparel from Haiti. The HELP legislation expanded existing preferences under HOPE I and HOPE II, and established new U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 20 | www.usitc.gov preferences for additional products, with unlimited duty-free treatment for certain knit apparel and certain home goods. Most U.S. imports from Haiti use the Haiti-specific preference program and CBTPA program. In 2021 $751.3 million (67.9 percent) of total imports entered under the Haiti-specific preference program and $260.4 million (23.6 percent) under CBTPA (table ES.1). Table ES.1 U.S. imports for consumption from Haiti under preference programs, 2000–2021 In millions of dollars. Year GSP CBERA CBTPA HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP All duty preference programs No special program 2000 2.6 20.5 4.6 0.0 27.7 269.0 2001 2.2 14.9 143.8 0.0 160.9 102.2 2002 1.1 16.5 160.0 0.0 177.6 76.9 2003 3.1 11.6 199.1 0.0 213.8 118.6 2004 1.5 10.5 207.8 0.0 219.8 150.7 2005 1.7 14.8 288.5 0.0 305.0 142.0 2006 1.4 14.9 364.4 0.0 380.7 115.4 2007 1.9 9.9 420.5 0.4 432.7 54.8 2008 1.1 10.9 394.2 15.3 421.7 28.2 2009 0.8 14.9 374.0 136.9 526.6 25.4 2010 1.8 8.2 355.9 162.2 528.1 22.7 2011 0.5 13.2 461.4 230.6 795.7 36.0 2012 0.5 12.6 424.2 306.0 743.3 30.8 2013 0.4 18.6 343.7 422.1 784.8 24.8 2014 0.1 19.2 386.2 451.5 857.0 40.3 2015 0.3 19.9 413.5 497.2 930.9 37.3 2016 0.7 12.8 305.0 295.0 613.5 281.9 2017 1.2 17.1 277.9 423.2 719.4 196.4 2018 1.1 12.9 284.2 661.4 959.6 45.8 2019 1.4 15.5 246.6 737.1 1,000.6 41.4 2020 3.2 20.8 174.2 573.2 771.4 57.7 2021 0.4 21.8 260.4 751.3 1,033.9 71.8 Source: USITC DataWeb/Census, accessed August 19, 2022. Note: GSP data for 2021 refer only to “GSP-claimed” imports, which have not yet received duty-free treatment, given the lapse in authorization of GSP that affected the entirety of 2021. In the past, duties collected on these goods have been returned to importers after GSP ha s be e n re authorize d a nd a ppli ed retroacti vely to GSP-claimed goods. Summary of the Impact of the U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy The impact of the U.S. preference programs on Haiti’s economy is described throughout this report. A summary of key points is provided below. Foreign Direct Investment Haiti experienced a surge in foreign direct investment (FDI) following the implementation of U.S. preference programs in 2006 (HOPE I), 2008 (HOPE II), and 2010 (HELP). Haiti’s FDI stock grew rapidly Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 21 during this time, about 17 p ercent per year, from $300 m illion in 2006 to $1. 74 billion in 2017 (figure 3.13, chapter 3 ). However, po litical instability, i nsecurity due to i ncreased gang a ctivity, and disruptions due to the COVID-19 pandemic ha ve all contributed to a n investment s lowdown, w ith Haiti’s FD I stock growing by o nly 2.6 percent pe r year on average dur ing 2018–21. In addition, pa rticipants a t the Commission’s public he aring indicated another f actor behind lower i nvestment i n Haiti has been the uncertainty a ssociated with the r enewal of the HOPE and HELP programs a nd that a long -term U.S. commitment t o these preference programs w ould encourage apparel firms to expand investments in Haitian factories, i nfrastructure, a nd training. Production a nd Exports U.S. imports f rom Haiti generally i ncreased after the implementation of each U.S. p reference p rogram from 1980 to 2021. U.S. apparel imports f rom Haiti quadrupled after t he CBTPA and HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP p rograms w ere imp lemented, from $231 m illion in 2001 to $994 m illion in 2021 (fi gure 4.1, chapter 4 ). Haiti produces bo th knit a pparel and woven apparel, but e xports o f knit apparel to the United States ha ve seen much greater g rowth—from $64 m illion in 1989 to $884 m illion in 2021, now representing 83 percent o f all U.S. apparel i mports f rom Haiti. U.S. imports o f T-shirts, a knit a pparel product, a ccounted for a large pr oportion of t his increase. U .S. preference programs also contributed to a diversification of t he product m ix, with Haitian factories o ffering more complex products such as outerwear, p erformance a nd activewear, w orkwear, t ailored i tems, and lingerie. After t he HELP Act, Haitian factories de veloped the a bility to work with more c omplex f abrics, such as w ool and manmade fibers, t o take advantage o f new provisions i n the program. Employment and W orking C onditions Apparel employment fell sharply i n the 1990s as a result o f the trade embargo i mposed in 1991—from a high of 100,000– 150,000 work ers in the 1980s to about 5, 000–15,000 in the 1990s. The trade embargo from 1991 to 1994 effectively closed a pparel operatio ns, and employment f ell close to zero for a short time during that period. Apparel e mployment parti ally recovered i n 2009 and 2010 a fter the implementation of t he HOPE I/HOPE II/ HELP Acts. A s of 2021, the g arment i ndustry i s once again one o f the largest s ources of f ormal employment, providing 53,000–57,000 jobs a nd supporting m ore than 450,000 people in the country ( table 4.2, chapter 4 ). Additionally, a fter the implementation of H OPE II’s TAICNAR l abor monitoring p rograms i n 2008, Better W ork Haiti compliance r eports s how low levels of noncompliance w ith ILO c ore labor standards ( forced labor, c hild labor, freedom of a ssociation, collective bargaining, and gender discrimination) but generally hi gh levels of noncompliance with respect to compensation and safety-r elated metrics. Union representatives and NGOs have i ndicated that labor issues persist. It is difficult t o find historical employment statistics for non-apparel industries in Haiti, but s ome anecdotal information exi sts. For example, as di scussed in the s porting g oods case study, after the introduction of t he CBERA program in the 1 980s, some U.S. s porting g oods firms were incentivized to relocate pr oduction to H aiti to benefit f rom the preferences offered, i ncreasing employment i n the industry. H owever, the H aitian sporting g oods industry collapsed after t he trade embargo i n 1991 as firms relocated production facilities i n neighboring countries. In contrast t o apparel, s porting g oods exports di d not rebound after t he embargo. U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 22 | www.usitc.gov Overview of Haiti’s Economy Haiti is one of the poorest countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, with 2021 current dollar gross domestic product (GDP) of $20.9 billion, or $1,815 per capita. Measured at purchasing power parity (PPP), Haiti’s GDP is $36.1 billion, or $3,129 per capita, nearly one-fifth the average income of other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Per capita income has been relatively stagnant over the past decade, with little improvement in living standards. Recent data from the UN Human Development Index (a composite index covering life expectancy, education, and gross national incom e per capita) ranked Haiti 170th of the 189 countries surveyed. Haiti has faced substantial economic headwinds during the past 20 years. Natural disasters have taken lives and damaged property, and political instability has hampered the nation’s ability to cope with these challenges. The devastating 2010 earthquake of 7.0 magnitude that struck Port-au-Prince was estimated to have caused damages of $8–14 billion, greater than Haiti’s GDP at the time, and left an estimated 200,000– 250,000 dead and 280,000 buildings damaged or destroyed (see box 3.3 in chapter 3). Instability has plagued Haiti’s political system during this period, most recently with the assassination of President Jovenel Moïse on July 7, 2021. Shortly after President Moïse’s death, the country was again struck by an earthquake, this time of magnitude 7.2, on August 14, 2021. The 2021 earthquake resulted in fewer casualties than the one in 2010, but it left an estimated 2,248 dead, and more than 137,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. Maintaining law and order has become increasingly difficult with rising political instability and repeated economic blows. With a rate of nearly 10 homicides per 100,000 citizens per year, Haiti was ranked 115th of 141 countries on security by the World Economic Forum. President Moïse’s assassination was followed by a resurgence of gang activity and turf wars, which displaced about 19,000 people in the capital. Along with the ongoing political instability and insecurity, corruption remains widespread in all branches of government and civil service—depleting funds needed for government institutions and essential public services. Haiti’s Labor Market, Working Conditions, and Wages Haiti’s population was 11.5 million in 2021 and has been growing at a rate of 1–2 percent per year during the last four decades. According to the CIA World Factbook, 95 percent of Haitians are Black; the remaining 5 percent of the population’s race/ethnicity are Mixed or White. The population of Haiti is relatively young, with an estimated median age of 24.1 years in 2020. Ninety percent of the population is estimated to be younger than 55 years old, and less than 5 percent of the population is estimated to be 65 or older. Haiti’s labor force numbered 5.1 million in 2021. Even though women represent a slightly larger share of the population, men are a majority of the labor force at 51.8 percent. However, the gender gap has been declining since 1990, when men comprised 55.9 percent of the labor force. The labor force participation rate has been relatively stable at 62–67 percent over the past three decades. Consistent with its young population, Haiti has a young labor force. The median age of workers was 37.1 years in 2019, up from 35.8 years in 2010. While data on worker income levels in Haiti are limited, one proxy for workers’ income is GDP per capita. Although this measure has fluctuated annually, overall per capita income has remained flat. In Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 23 2000, GDP per capita was $3, 235 (constant PPP) and was virtually the same, at $3,129, in 2021. This suggests that workers have not experienced increases in economic well-being. Between 2014 and 2022, the Haitian government announced six increases to the daily minimum wage. Depending on the industry of employment, the daily minimum wage increased an average of 11. 4–16.6 percent per year in nominal terms between 2014 and 2022. The average annual inflation rate in Haiti during this period was about 12.9 percent; as shown in table 3.13 about half of the industries for which wage rates are available exper ienced minimum wage increases that were slightly more than the average inflation rate. The remaining industries had daily minimum wage increases that were just below the average. However, these minimum wages only cover employment in the formal sector and do not cover the informal sector, in which most Haitians are employed. While daily minimum wages have increased since the implementation of the HOPE II and HELP programs, they continue to be low, ranging from $3.19– $7.02 as of February 2022 (see table 3 .13). Recent estimates from the Solidarity Center on the cost of living for garment workers in Port-au-Prince imply that living costs are four times the official daily minimum wage. Haiti’s Overall Trade and Trade with the United States The United States is by far Haiti’s most important trading partner, with about 80 percent of Haiti’s merchandise exports heading to the United States (see figure ES.2). The trading relationship has been driven by U.S. trade preferences available to Haiti. In 2020, Haiti’s goods exports reached $1.01 billion. Haiti’s exports have been increasing over time, rising by $797 million (about 148 percent) between 2005 and 2019. However, exports decreased between 2019 and 2020, likely as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic disruptions that caused temporary closures of apparel factories in Haiti. Canada and the Dominican Republic have historically been Haiti’s next-most important trading partners by value of trade. Just as Haiti’s exports are concentrated by destination country, Haiti’s exports by product are concentrated by sector, primarily in apparel (see figure 3.7 in chapter 3). A range of apparel and clothing accessories consistently dominates exports, accounting for almost 80 percent of Haiti’s exports in 2019. Knitted or crocheted apparel and clothing accessories rank at the top, followed by no n-knitted or crocheted apparel. Essential oils, perfumes, and beauty preparations ranked in the top three or four products. A food product grouping that includes mangoes ranked among the top eight products over this period. L ive fish also rank among Haiti’s top exports and totaled $79 million in 2019, mainly consisting of live eels exported to Canada and Hong Kong (see box 3.4 in chapter 3). U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 24 | www.usitc.gov Figure ES.2 Total U.S. merchandise imports from Haiti, 1980–2021 In millions of dollars. Underlying data for this figure can be found in Appendix E, table E.12 . Sources: NBER Public Use Data, U.S. imports 1980–88, a ccessed July 11, 2022; USITC DataWeb/Ce nsus, U.S. i mports 19 89–2021, a ccessed July 11, 2022; data concorded by USITC staff. In 2019, Haiti imported goods worth an estimated $3.67 billion, incurring a goods trade deficit of $2.34 billion. The deficit grew between 2019 and 2020 as Haiti’s imports increased and its exports declined. Just as the United States is the largest importer of Haiti’s goods, it is also Haiti’s largest source of imported goods, at $1.40 billion in 2020. The Dominican Republic is also a top exporter to Haiti, ranked second in 2020 (see figure 3.8), but its ranking as an importer of Haitian goods has diminished over time, dropping from second in 2005 to ninth in 2020 (see figure 3.6). Meanwhile, China’s exports to Haiti have grown rapidly, surging 2,267 percent between 2005 and 2020. The composition of U.S. imports from Haiti has changed since 1980. During the 1980s, sporting goods, electrical components, and coffee accounted for the largest share of exports to the United States, but apparel, though exported, was less dominant than it is today (see table 3.3). In 1991, in response to a military coup that overthrew President Jean Bertrand Aristide, the United States and other members of the Organization of American States imposed a trade embargo on Haiti (see box 3.1). After imposition of the embargo, Haiti’s exports collapsed, as did many of the associated manufacturers who produced principally for export. Baseball and softball manufacture, for example, shifted abroad (see the sporting goods case study in chapter 4). The apparel industry was a notable exception; it was severely damaged but managed to survive the crisis and thrive once the embargo was lifted in 1994 and U.S. trade preferences were expanded. This report employs a few different methods to identify Haitian industries that have the potential to increase exports to the United States. In chapter 3, the Commission calculates and reports the Normalized Revealed Comparative Advantage (NRCA) by sector in Haiti according to 2015–19 exports. 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 U.S. merchandise imports from Haiti (millions of dollars) Year CBERA Embargo CBTPA HOPE I HOPE II HELP Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 25 The NRCA compares the relative intensity of a given product in Haiti’s export mix to the average intensity of global exports in that category. The NRCA index ranges between −1 (very low exports compared to the global average) and + 1 (extremely high exports compared to the global average), with zero indicating that Haiti exports at the same relative intensity as the rest of the world. Many highly ranked products are, unsurprisingly, apparel. Highly ranked non- apparel goods include citrus peel, live fish (principally live eels), essential oils, cocoa beans, and mangoes. Notably, none of the most-exported manufactured goods from before the embargo (other than apparel) appears in the top tier of the NRCA list. In addition to the NRCA analysis, chapter 3 also describes available research from the literature and anecdotal information collected during several interviews with subject matter experts. The Geneva- based International Trade Centre assesses products with potential for increased exports and finds a similar list of products from Hai ti as our analysis. Other products described in interviews with subject matter experts as having the potential to increase exports include moringa oil, castor oil, and coffee. Haitian Global Competitiveness According to the latest Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) of the World Economic Forum (WEF) Haiti has a challenging business environment for companies (Haiti’s business environment was ranked 137th in WEF’s competition and openness ranking of 141 countries). Executives who responded to the WEF survey indicated that a small number of firms dominated Haiti’s domestic markets, facing little competition, and that Haiti’s tax policy was not designed to facilitate competition. Haiti’s financial markets also impede sustained economic growth (ranked 132nd of 141 countries in terms of the depth and stability of Haiti’s financial markets). The WEF Executive Opinion Survey indicated that it was difficult for small and medium-sized enterprises to obtain financing for operations and for entrepreneurs to access domestic financial markets when launching new businesses and products. The GCI also indicates that poor infrastructure raises the cost of doing business and impairs the country’s ability to trade with the world (Haiti’s infrastructure ranked the lowest of all countries). Only 30 percent of Haiti’s population has access to electricity and about 75 percent of Haiti’s population is exposed to unsafe drinking water. Additionally, the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications of Haiti rates 10 percent of the road network in good condition, 10 percent in medium condition, 30 percent in bad condition, and 50 percent in very bad condition. Haiti’s ports are similarly underdeveloped. Poor integration into the global shipping network has meant higher freight rates relative to competitors in the Dominican Republic. Port-au-Prince and Cap- Haïtien are Haiti’s main seaports. Port-au-Prince is the primary port for container traffic and general freight, moving about 1 million tons of freight annually. Cap- Haïtien is currently being upgraded to serve the growing overseas demand for Haiti’s textiles and apparel products that are manufactured nearby. Finally, Haiti’s labor force consists mostly of low-wage unskilled labor, with a shortage of skilled employees (Haiti is ranked 123rd of 141 countries under the skills pillar). Haiti was ranked at the bottom on measures looking at the extent of workforce training conducted by firms, the skillset of university graduates, the digital competency of the workforce, and the ease of finding skilled employees. A challenge to increasing the skill levels of workers is related to the type of jobs available for Haitians. For example, many jobs in the apparel industry do not require literacy, let alone highly educated workers. U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 26 | www.usitc.gov Many workers need to learn only a few operations in the apparel manufacturing process to perform their jobs. While Haitian workers have a competitive advantage relative to other countries because of their low wages, the relatively low productivity of workers detracts from the country’s competitiveness. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), output per worker declined by 11.2 percent between 2010 and 2021; the low levels of education and pervasive corruption in Haiti are likely among the factors affecting the country’s productivity. Despite these significant challenges, Haiti has shown its ability to compete in international markets under the right conditions. Haiti has developed a strong manufacturing base in textiles and apparel, a very cost-sensitive industry, by taking advantage of duty-free access to the United States through the HOPE and HELP programs, the relatively low wages of Haitian workers, and its proximity to the U.S. market. Haitian manufacturers have expanded the variety and complexity of their garments. Increased interest on the part of apparel brands in nearshoring inputs to avoid supply chain disruptions could benefit Haitian manufacturers and allow them to leverage their existing relationships with U.S. buyers and seek to establish new relationships to increase sales. With a young and potentially trainable labor force of 5.1 million workers, Haiti has the potential to increase its competitiveness in labor-intensive industries such as textiles and apparel, particularly if Haiti’s political conditions stabilize and overall security conditions improve. Case Studies Apparel During the last 40 years, the apparel industry has played a central role in Haiti’s development. The apparel sector has weathered numerous adverse events, including the 1991 trade embargo, hurricanes and earthquakes, and most recently the assassination of President Moïse and worsening gang violence. Employment in the sector fell from its peak of 150,000 employees in the 1970s and 1980s to fewer than 10,000 by the mid-1990s because of the trade embargo. Employment in 2022 is estimated to have increased to 50,000 workers. Wages in Haiti’s apparel industry generally increase over time in Haitian gourdes, but wages stated in U.S. dollars have not grown substantially during the past decade. Much of the success of Haiti’s apparel industry can be attributed to CBTPA, HOPE I, HOPE II, and HELP. Other advantages, such as low wage rates, strong relationships with U.S. buyers, proximity to the United S tates, and Haiti’s ability to coproduce and leverage the infrastructure (such as energy and ports) of its neighbor, the Dominican Republic, have also contributed. The acceleration of Haiti’s apparel exports began with the implementation of the CBTPA in 2001 (and increased further with the HOPE I/HOPE II/HELP programs); U.S. apparel imports from Haiti quadrupled from $231 million in 2001 to $994 million in 2021 (figure ES.3). Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 27 Figure ES.3 U.S. apparel imports from Haiti, 1980– 2021 In millions of dollars. Underlying data for this figure can be found in Appendix E, table E.17 . Source : USITC DataWeb/Ce nsus, HS 6 1 a nd 6 2, Imports for Cons umption from Hai ti, a ccess ed July 26, 2022. Note: 1989 was the first year that the HTS was implemented. Trade data before 1989 were reported under the Tariff Schedule of the United States (TSUS). Wove n a nd knit definitions are not identical between TSUS ( 1980–88) a nd HTS (1989– 2021). HOPE II contains unique labor provisions that require apparel producers to comply with core labor standards and national labor laws. Compliance with core labor standards is monitored by the ILO through the Better Work Haiti program. Overall, reports published by Better Work Haiti since 2009 show low levels of noncomp liance in the ILO core labor standards , with low levels of noncompliance cited for forced labor, freedom of association and collective bargaining and gender discrimination. The Better Work Haiti reports show high levels of noncompliance for compensation and occupational safety related metrics, standards that are addressed in Haiti’s labor laws . Union representatives and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have indicated that labor issues persist. They cite cases of firms not providing paid leave, social security and other benefits, paid overtime when due, and denying workers collective bargaining rights. These representatives have also indicated that sexual harassment and gender discrimination remain a problem in apparel factories. Testimony from trade associations, union representatives, and other industry representatives in written submissions, interviews, and the Commission’s public hearing at times conflicted with noncompliance trends in the Better Work Haiti reports. Mangoes The second case study concerns Haiti’s most important export crop, mangoes. In 2020, Haiti produced about 238,000 metric tons (mt) of mangoes, guavas, and mangosteens, a 63.4 percent decrease from 2015. Of this aggregated product category, much of the production is believed to be mango. Despite being grown widely across the country, only an estimated 10 percent of mango trees are the “Francis” 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 U.S. imports (millions of dollars) Year Knit Apparel (TSUS) Knit Apparel (HTS chapter 61) Apparel other than Knit Apparel (TSUS) Woven Apparel (HTS chapter 62) U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 28 | www.usitc.gov variety that is exported. This variety, unique to Haiti, is juicy and sweet, distinguished by its spicy flavor. Export production, largely grown on smallholder farms as a secondary crop using traditional methods, is found mostly in the north and central part of the country where adequate supply-chain infrastructure exists to handle export volumes. The production season runs between April and July. Once harvested, mangoes are delivered by various modes to packhouses for preparation and packaging for export. About 50,000 households in Haiti depend on the mango industry for income, with 80 percent of those having at least one Francis mango tree. It was estimated in 2013 that about 2,000 workers were in the industry during peak harvest periods. The number of jobs is likely to increase as the industry is becoming more organized and commercially oriented. However, there is a lot of uncertainty about whether the industry will grow because increases in crime reportedly make workers afraid of incidents and harm they may suffer while enroute to and from work, especially for low wages. Haitian mango exports have increased by more than 1,400 mt to 12,113 mt between 2015 and 2021, a 13.3 percent increase. The United States is Haiti’s primary export destination for mangoes, though there are reports of Haitian mangoes being exported to the Dominican Republic, Turks and Caicos, the Bahamas, and Canada. Haiti is the sixth-largest mango supplier to the U.S. market, representing 2.2 percent of all mango imports in 2021. Owing to their perishability, relatively small volumes, and short season, Haitian mangoes are mostly found on the E ast Coast of the United States in smaller and more specialized grocery stores, where they can sell for about double the price of other mangoes. Haiti has been unable to increase exports to match growing demand. Haiti’s role as a niche supplier of a unique variety of mango, the supply of which is highly constrained, is a major limiting factor to increasing exports to the United States. Sporting Goods The first U.S. sporting goods firm entered Haiti in the 1960s, followed by others in the 1970s. The number of U.S. sporting goods firms operating in Haiti, and U.S. imports of sporting goods from Haiti reached their highest levels in the 1980s. Virtually all sporting goods produced by those firms in Haiti were exported to the United States. Baseballs and softballs dominated production and export of sporting goods to the United States. U.S. firms were drawn to Haiti by its low labor costs, proximity to the United States, and tax incentives offered by the Haitian government. There are no official employment statistics available for Haiti’s sporting goods industry, but employment figures have been reported in various articles and reports. One article reports that in 1985, about 3,500 Haitian women were employed by five U.S. sporting goods companies to manufacture 90 percent of the world’s baseballs. Likewise, official wage rates are unavailable, but anecdotal information suggest that women in Haiti earned about $1.80 per day in 1979, equivalent to about $7.20 today. Exports of baseballs from Haiti to the United States peaked in 1985, at $19.7 million; softball exports peaked in 1982 at $16.9 million (figure ES.4). Basketballs produced in Haiti, on the other hand, were exported to the United States only from 1984 to 1988, totaling about $858,000 at their peak in 1986. Once Haiti’s baseball and softball exports qualified in 1984 under GSP and CBERA, exports quickly shifted to duty-free treatment under those programs (figure 4.10, chapter 4). Some firms began to move operations out of Haiti beginning in 1988 in response to increased political instability after President Jean-Claude Duvalier’s exit in 1986, increasing regional competition under the Executive Summary United States International Trade Commission | 29 Caribbean Basin Initiative, and concerns of potential worker unionization. With imposition of the trade embargo on Haiti in 1991, the sporting goods industry in Haiti collapsed, with a majority of firms relocating to neighboring countries. The final year that the CBERA and GSP programs were used by sporting goods firms in Haiti was 1998. Figure ES.4 U.S. Imports of baseballs and softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 In millions of dollars. Underlying data for this figure can be found in Appendix E, table E.23 . Sources: NBER Public Use Data, U.S. imports 1980–88, TSUS item numbers 734.56.10, 734.56.15, a ccessed August 17, 2022; USITC DataWeb/Census, U.S. imports 1989–2021, HTS statistical reporting numbers 9506.69.2040, 9506.69.2080, a ccessed August 17, 2022; data concorded by USITC staff. Embargo CBERA 0 5 10 15 20 25 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 U.S. imports (millions of dollars) Year Baseballs Softballs 30 | www.usitc.gov [... middle sections omitted for long document ...] Appendix E: Tables for Figures United States International Trade Commission | 243 Table E.24 Tariffs on baseballs and softballs, 1963–2000 In percentages. Em dash (— ) = no data. MFN = most favored nation; NTR = normal trade relations. Preference tariff encompasses Haiti's GSP rate and CBERA rate. This table corresponds to figure 4.9 . Year MFN/NTR Tariff (%) Preference tariff (%) 1963 15.0 — 1964 15.0 — 1965 15.0 — 1966 15.0 — 1967 15.0 — 1968 13.0 — 1969 12.0 — 1970 10.0 — 1971 9.0 — 1972 7.5 — 1973 7.5 — 1975 7.5 — 1976 7.5 — 1977 7.5 — 1978 7.5 — 1979 7.5 — 1980 6.9 — 1981 6.4 — 1982 5.8 — 1983 5.3 — 1984 4.7 0.0 1985 4.1 0.0 1986 3.6 0.0 1987 3.0 0.0 1988 3.0 0.0 1989 3.0 0.0 1990 3.0 0.0 1991 3.0 0.0 1992 3.0 0.0 1993 3.0 0.0 1994 3.0 0.0 1995 2.4 0.0 1996 1.8 0.0 1997 1.2 0.0 1998 0.6 0.0 1999 0.0 0.0 2000 0.0 0.0 Sources: TSUSA statistical annotation 734.55 (1963), 734.55.40 (1964–65), 734.55.40 (1968– 76), 734.56.10 (1978– 8 8) a nd HTS s tatistical reporting number 9506.69.20 (1989–2000). Note: Imports of baseballs and softballs became NTR free effective 1999. U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti’s Economy and Workers 244 | www.usitc.gov Table E.25 U.S. imports of baseballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 In millions of U.S. dollars. This table corresponds to figure 4.10 . Year CBERA GSP Other/none 1980 0.0 0.0 15.8 1981 0.0 0.0 18.6 1982 0.0 0.0 18.6 1983 0.0 0.0 18.4 1984 0.3 0.3 16.4 1985 3.1 0.9 15.7 1986 13.5 0.3 4.4 1987 14.8 0.8 0.8 1988 15.1 0.6 0.2 1989 14.2 0.4 0.0 1990 13.9 2.8 0.5 1991 7.7 0.3 0.3 1992 0.9 0.0 0.0 1993 1.0 0.3 0.0 1994 0.6 0.2 0.0 1995 0.6 0.1 0.0 1996 0.7 0.0 0.1 1997 0.6 0.0 0.1 1998 0.6 0.0 0.0 1999 0.0 0.0 0.6 2000 0.0 0.0 0.8 2001 0.0 0.0 0.7 2002 0.0 0.0 0.3 2003 0.0 0.0 0.2 2004 0.0 0.0 0.0 2005 0.0 0.0 0.1 2006 0.0 0.0 0.0 2007 0.0 0.0 0.0 2008 0.0 0.0 0.0 2009 0.0 0.0 0.0 2010 0.0 0.0 0.0 2011 0.0 0.0 0.0 2012 0.0 0.0 0.0 2013 0.0 0.0 0.0 2014 0.0 0.0 0.0 2015 0.0 0.0 0.0 2016 0.0 0.0 0.0 2017 0.0 0.0 0.0 2018 0.0 0.0 0.0 2019 0.0 0.0 0.0 2020 0.0 0.0 0.0 2021 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sources: NBER Public Use Data, U.S. imports from 1980 to 1988, TSUSA statistical annotation 734.56.10, accessed August 17, 2022; USITC DataWeb/Census, U.S. imports from 1989 to 2021, HTS statistical reporting number 9506.69.2040, accessed August 17, 2022; data concorded by USITC staff. Appendix E: Tables for Figures United States International Trade Commission | 245 Table E.26 U.S. imports of softballs from Haiti, 1980–2021 In millions of U.S. dollars. This table corresponds to figure 4.11 . Year CBERA GSP Other/none 1980 0.0 0.0 14.2 1981 0.0 0.0 13.7 1982 0.0 0.1 16.9 1983 0.0 0.0 13.9 1984 0.4 0.4 15.5 1985 0.7 0.3 10.2 1986 3.5 0.2 9.8 1987 5.3 1.2 8.8 1988 6.4 0.5 8.5 1989 4.7 0.5 7.0 1990 5.7 0.5 5.9 1991 4.8 0.1 5.4 1992 2.7 0.0 2.9 1993 5.5 0.7 0.1 1994 1.9 0.0 0.0 1995 1.6 0.0 0.0 1996 1.1 0.0 0.0 1997 0.4 0.0 0.1 1998 0.5 0.0 0.0 1999 0.0 0.0 0.8 2000 0.0 0.0 1.5 2001 0.0 0.0 1.1 2002 0.0 0.0 0.8 2003 0.0 0.0 1.3 2004 0.0 0.0 2.8 2005 0.0 0.0 0.6 2006 0.0 0.0 0.0 2007 0.0 0.0 0.0 2008 0.0 0.0 0.0 2009 0.0 0.0 0.0 2010 0.0 0.0 0.0 2011 0.0 0.0 0.0 2012 0.0 0.0 0.0 2013 0.0 0.0 0.0 2014 0.0 0.0 0.0 2015 0.0 0.0 0.0 2016 0.0 0.0 0.0 2017 0.0 0.0 0.0 2018 0.0 0.0 0.0 2019 0.0 0.0 0.0 2020 0.0 0.0 0.0 2021 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sources: NBER Public Use Data, U.S. imports from 1980 to 1988, TSUSA statistical annotation 734.56.15, accessed August 17, 2022; USITC DataWeb/Census, U.S. imports from 1989 to 2021, HTS statistical reporting number 9506.69.2080, accessed August 17, 2022. 246 | www.usitc.gov Appendix F: Supplemental Tables United States International Trade Commission | 247 Appendix F Supplemental Tables 248 | www.usitc.gov Appendix F: Supplemental Tables United States International Trade Commission | 249 Table F.1 Top 20 U.S. imports from Haiti, 1980– 88 In millions of dollars. TSUS = Tariff System of the United States; n.c. = not calculable; nspf = not specifically provided for. TSUS Description Imports from Haiti (millions $) Ranking 734.56.10 Baseballs 158.3 1 734.56.15 Softballs 130.6 2 685.90.80 Other electrical switches, connectors, and relays 105.8 3 791.27.00 Cut shoe uppers of leather with or without soles, lasted 103.0 4 376.24.30 Brassieres, manmade fiber lace net or ornamented 96.3 5 685.90.54 Other electrical connectors, nspf 94.0 6 160.10.20 Coffee, crude 86.9 7 800.00.35 United States goods returned 58.8 8 740.13.00 Other necklaces and neck chains, gold 49.0 9 378.05.53 Women’s, girls’, and infants’ lace/net or ornamented knit underwear of manmade-fibers 48.6 10 683.60.90 Other electrical starting and ignition equipment for internal combustion engines 43.9 11 601.06.00 Bauxite 40.5 12 685.90.38 Other electrical switches and relays electrical, nspf 37.1 13 682.05.20 Transformers rated at less than 40 volt-amperes 36.5 14 791.60.00 Leather belts and buckles, to be worn on the person 31.8 15 682.60.52 Coils and inductors 31.6 16 315.20.20 Binder and baler twine of hard (leaf) vegetable fibers not stranded and not over 375 feet per pound 31.1 17 688.18.00 Other insulated electrical conductors with fittings, nspf 23.4 18 155.20.45 Cane or beet sugars, sirups, and molasses principally of crystalline structure or in dry amorphous form, nspf 22.8 19 256.87.80 Articles, nspf, or papers, coated, lined, parchment etc. 22.3 20 All other products All other products not listed above 1,832.8 n.c. All products Total U.S. imports from Haiti (all TSUS products) 3,085.0 n.c. Source: NBER Public Use Data, U.S. imports 1980–88, accessed June 24, 2022. Table F.2 Top 50 products by NRCA index, by HS 4-digit heading (according to constructed Haitian exports in 2015– 19) In millions of dollars. NRCA = normalized revealed comparative advantage; n.e.s.o.i. = not elsewhere specified or included. HS 4-digit heading Description NRCA index NRCA rank Average annual exports (millions $) 0814 Peel of citrus fruit or melons (including watermelons), fresh, frozen, dried, or provisionally preserved 0.99 1 1.0 0301 Fish, live 0.99 2 25.6 6109 T-shirts, singlets, tank tops, and similar garments, knitted or crocheted 0.99 3 461.8 3301 Essential oils, concretes and absolutes; resinoid; extracted oleoresins; concentrates of essential oils and terpenic byproducts; aqueous solutions etc. of essential oil 0.98 4 41.8 6110 Sweaters, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats (vests), and similar articles, knitted or crocheted 0.97 5 237.6 U.S.-Haiti Trade: Impact of U.S. Preference Programs on Haiti's Economy and Workers 250 | www.usitc.gov HS 4-digit heading Description NRCA index NRCA rank Average annual exports (millions $) 6203 Men’s or boys’ suits, ensembles, suit-type jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches, etc. (no swimwear), not knitted or crocheted 0.95 6 116.9 6104 Women’s or girls’ suits, ensembles, suit-type jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, etc. (no swimwear), knitted or crocheted 0.95 7 72.5 0308 Aquatic invertebrates other than crustaceans and mollusks 0.95 8 2.1 6205 Men’s or boys’ shirts, not knitted or crocheted 0.94 9 30.8 6103 Men’s or boys’ suits, ensembles, suit-type jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches, and shorts (no swimwear), knitted or crocheted 0.93 10 14.4 6304 Furnishing articles of textile materials n.e.s.o.i. 0.93 11 5.7 6108 Women’s or girls’ slips, petticoats, briefs, panties, nightdresses, pajamas, negligees, bathrobes and similar articles, knitted or crocheted 0.92 12 19.1 6211 Track suits, ski-suits, and swimwear, not knitted or crocheted 0.92 13 17.5 6704 Wigs, false beards, eyebrows and eyelashes, switches and similar articles, of human or animal hair or textile materials; articles of human hair n.e.s.o.i. 0.92 14 3.8 7802 Lead waste and scrap 0.89 15 0.6 6107 Men’s or boys’ underpants, briefs, nightshirts, pajamas, bathrobes, dressing gowns, and similar articles, knitted or crocheted 0.87 16 6.3 1801 Cocoa beans, whole or broken, raw or roasted 0.85 17 8.9 4106 Tanned or crust hides of other animals, without hair on, whether or not split, but not further prepared, n.e.s.o.i. 0.85 18 0.4 5204 Cotton sewing thread, whether or not put up for retail sale 0.85 19 0.1 0804 Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes and mangosteens, fresh or dried 0.85 20 11.0 6207 Men's or boy's singlets and other undershirts, underpants, briefs, nightshirts, pajamas, bathrobes and similar articles, not knitted or crocheted 0.82 21 0.81 4113 Leather further prepared after tanning/crusting, including parchement-dressed leather, of other animals, without wool/hair on, whether or not split, other than leather of heading 4114 0.81 22 0.76 6703 Human hair, dressed or otherwise worked; wool or other animal hair or other textile materials, prepared for use in making wigs or the like 0.81 23 0.35 6114 Garments n.e.s.o.i., knitted or crocheted 0.80 24 3.94 6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted 0.80 25 4.67 9507 Fishing rods, line fishing tackle; nets (fish landing, butterfly etc.); hunting decoy birds etc.; parts and accessories thereof 0.78 26 1.68 8548 Electrical parts of machinery or apparatus, n.e.s.o.i. 0.77 27 3.73 6505 Hats and other headgear, knitted or crocheted, or made up from lace, felt or other textile fabric, in the piece (no strips); hair nets of any material 0.76 28 2.65 8306 Bells, gongs and the like, nonelectric; ornaments; photograph or similar frames; mirrors; the foregoing and parts thereof, of base metal 0.73 29 0.95 Appendix F: Supplemental Tables United States International Trade Commission | 251 HS 4-digit heading Description NRCA index NRCA rank Average annual exports (millions $) 0508 Coral and similar materials, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and cuttlebone shells, unworked or simply prepared, not cut to shape, powder and waste 0.72 30 0.06 4205 Articles of leather or composition leather, n.e.s.o.i. 0.72 31 1.19 6111 Babies' garments and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted 0.71 32 2.96 7001 Cullet and other waste and scrap of glass, excluding glass from cathode-ray tubes or other activated glass of heading 8549; glass in the mass 0.70 33 0.19 7018 Glass beads, imitation stones etc. and articles n.e.s.o.i.; glass eyes n.e.s.o.i.; lamp-worked glass ornaments; glass microspheres, not over 1 millimeter in diameter 0.69 34 0.46 6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, suit-type jackets, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, etc. (no swimwear), not knitted or crocheted 0.69 35 19.81 7204 Ferrous waste and scrap; remelting scrap ingots of iron or steel 0.67 36 11.31 6206 Women's or girl's blouses, shirts and shirt-blouses, not knitted or crocheted 0.67 37 5.27 6208 Women's or girls' singlets and other undershirts, slips, panties, nightdresses, pajamas, negligees and similar articles, not knitted or crocheted 0.66 38 0.67 7404 Copper waste and scrap 0.62 39 6.76 5212 Woven fabrics of cotton (containing less than 85 percent cotton by weight, mixed mainly or solely with other than manmade fibers) n.e.s.o.i. 0.60 40 0.11 9301 Military weapons, other than revolvers, pistols, and the arms of heading 9307 0.60 41 0.16 6310 Used or new rags, scrap twine, cordage, rope and cables, and worn- out articles of twine, cordage, rope or cables, of textile materials 0.59 42 0.18 4601 Plaits and similar products of plaiting materials; plaiting materials etc. bound in strands or woven in sheets, whether or not being finished articles 0.57 43 0.09 6502 Hat shapes, plaited or made by assembling strips of any material, neither blocked to shape, nor with made brims, nor lined, nor trimmed 0.56 44 0.01 3915 Waste, parings and scrap, of plastics 0.55 45 1.23 0604 Foliage, branches, grasses, mosses etc. (no flowers or buds), for bouquets or ornamental purposes, fresh, dried, dyed, bleached etc. 0.54 46 0.27 7602 Aluminum waste and scrap 0.47 47 2.64 7902 Zinc waste and scrap 0.40 48 0.10 4909 Printed or illustrated post cards, greeting cards, messages or announcements, with or without envelopes or trimmings 0.39 49 0.21 1211 Plants and parts of plants (including seeds and fruits), used in perfumery, pharmacy, or for insecticidal or similar purposes, fresh or dried 0.35 50 0.45 Source: USITC calculations; S&P Global, IHS Markit, Global Trade Atlas (GTA), accessed August 22, 2022. Note: Excluding HS 4-digit heading 64PP (goods of HS chapter 64 carried by post). Constructed Haitian exports statistics are based on reporting countries’ imports from Haiti. 252 | www.usitc.gov