Examen des programmes d'assistance alimentaire d'urgence axés sur le marché de Food for Peace : Rapport d'étude de cas sur Haïti

REVIEW OF FOOD FOR P EACE MARKET - BASED EMERGEN CY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS Haiti Case - Study R eport REPORT BY TANGO INTE RNATIONAL January 2018 CENTRAL PLATEAU DEPA RTMENT, HAITI Report prepared by Elizabeth Cuellar and Dr. Nancy Mock . The review team would like to acknowledge the assistance received from colleagues at USAID FFP and USAID Haiti whose time and thoughtful reflections helped make this case study possible. We would al so like to thank the valuable input received from stakeholders in implementing partner organizations, other donors, the private sector, and United Nations agencies operating in Haiti. The review team would like to thank Phanol P. Philippe (Independent Cons ultant) and Chantal Vielot (Independent Consultant) who contributed to primary data collection in Haiti and to Deborah Dimmett ( University of Arizona I ntern) for her support with field work logistics . The case study also benefited from inputs from Maryada Vallet (Design, Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist, TANGO), Padraic Finan, Niloy Chowdhury, and Robin Al - Haddad (Research Consultants, TANGO). We would especially like to thank the generous communities and households who provided the review team insight into their experiences. 1 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY CONTENTS ACRONYMS 3 SUMMARY FINDINGS FRO M HAITI 5 1. INTRODUCTION 5 CASE STUDY SCOPE AND APPROACH 5 COUNTRY CONTEXT 6 2. HISTORICAL NARRAT IVE OF FFP MARKET - BA SED FOOD ASSISTANCE 10 FFP ROLE IN HAITI 11 TIMELINE 13 3. PROGRAM DESIGN AN D IMPLEMENTATION 13 DESIGN DECISIONS: MO DALITY CHOICE AND CH ANGES, TARGETING STR ATEGY 13 IMPLEMENTATION CONSI DERATIONS/ISSUES: CH ALLENGES AND SUCCESS ES 22 PARTNERSHIPS AND COO RDINATION 26 FOOD SECURITY OUTCOM ES 29 4. COST - EFFICIENCY T RENDS 30 5. DEVELOPMENT IMPAC TS 31 OTHER IMPACTS 33 LIFE HISTORIES 34 6. PRIORITIZED RECOM MENDATIONS 35 APPROACHES AND STRAT EGIES THAT SHOULD CO NTINUE 35 APPROACHES AND STRAT EGIES TO MODIFY 36 ANNEXES 38 ANNEX 1: APPROACH 38 ANNEX 2: REFERENCES 39 ANNEX 3: LIFE HISTOR IES 41 ANNE X 4: RELEVANT ACTORS 44 ANNEX 5: SUMMARY OF FFP FUNDING IN HAITI 48 2 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY List of Figures Figure 1: FFP emergency funding (EFSP and 202(e) - enhanced per modality in Haiti, FY2010 - 2016 ........... 12 Figure 2: FFP - funded (EFSP and 202(e) - enhanced) activities in Haiti (2 015 - 2017) ................................ .......... 13 List of Tables Table 1: Summary of key events, shocks, and stressors in Haiti (2010 - 2016) and FFP emergency response, ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 6 Table 2: Retail price of staple foods in Port - au - Prince from 2010 - 2016 ................................ .............................. 9 Table 3: WFP’s blended modalities, Emergency Operation 200949 ................................ ................................ ... 18 Table 4: Key actors ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 44 Table 5: Stakeholders interviewed during the Haiti field mission and/o r via Skype ................................ ........ 45 Table 6: Summary data for focus groups/interviews conducted in Haiti: locations, number, and type of participants ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 46 Table 7: Summary of FFP EFSP and Title II funding in Haiti ................................ ................................ ................... 48 List of Life Histories Life History 1: Aimee ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 41 Life History 2: Jacqueline ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 42 Life History 3: Marie ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 43 3 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY ACRONYMS ACF Action Contre La Faim ASEC Assemblée de la Section Communale (Assembly of the Communal Assembly ) , Government of Haiti CASEC Conseils d’Administration de la Section Communale ( Administrative Council of the Communal Assembly) , Government of Haiti CFA Cash for Assets CFW Cash for Work CNSA Coordination Nationale de la Sécurité Alimentaire (National Coordination for Food Security ), Government of Haiti CRS Catholic Relief Services DESAH Drought Emergency Social Assistance for Haiti program, CARE DPC Direction de la Protection Civil (Department of Civil Protection), Government of Haiti ECHO European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection Department EFSP Emergency Food Security Program EMMAS Emergency Market Mapp ing and Analysis Studies EMOP Emergency Operations, World Food Programme FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation FCS Food Consumption Score FDHS Food Assisted Devel opment and Humanitarian Support, USAID FEWS NET Famine Early Warning Systems Networ k FFP Food for Peace FFW F ood for work FGD Focus Group Discussion GDP G ross domestic product GTSAN Technical Group for Food Security and Nutrition HDDS Household Dietary Diversity Scores IP Implementing Partner IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification KI Key Informant LRP Local and Regional Purchase (of food) MARNDR Ministère de l’Agriculture des Ressources Naturelles et du Développement Rural , Government of Haiti MAST Ministère des Affaires Sociales et du Travail ( Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor ), Government of Haiti MICT Ministry of Interior and Territorial Communities, Government of Haiti MINUSTAH The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti MSPP Ministry of Public Health and Population OCHDA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OFDA Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance PDM Post Distribution Monitoring PIO Public International Organization PRUSRA Emergency and Support to Agricultural Recovery Program , ACF 4 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY SSSA Seed System Security Assessment UNDP United Nations Development Programme USAID United States Agency for International Development WFP World Food Programme VSLA Village Savings and Loan Association 5 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY SUMMARY FINDINGS FRO M HAITI 1. INTRODUCTION CASE STUDY SCOPE AND APPROACH This report is one of seven case studies conducted under a global review of Food for Peace ( FFP ) market - based emergency programs (MBE P) that received Emergency Food Security Program (EFSP) or Title II 202(e) - enhanced funding between FY 2010 and 2016. This case study provides information about the global review’s four main objectives: (1) establish a historical narrative about FFP market - based emergency food assistance programming between 2010 and 2016, (2) review program design and implementation processes, (3) analyze program cost - efficiency trends across a range of variables, and (4) identify developmental impacts of the projects on lo cal economies and market actors. The global review 1 is based on: FFP’s guidance , award documents , and partner reports; field visits to seven countries specified by FFP; and data, documentation and information provided by FFP, IPs, key informants, and pro gram beneficiaries. A consistent methodology was used across cases to allow for comparison and aggregation of findings for the Global Report. The review is intended to gather lessons learned that focus on how FFP, as a unique actor and the largest internat ional food assistance donor, has evolved to address food security in crisis contexts. F or this case study, t he review team used secondary data spanning multiple emergencies in Haiti, beginning in 2010, while qualitative information focused on the most rec ent shocks, including the recent multi - year drought and Hurricane Matthew. F ield work was conducted in Haiti from June 5 to July 27, 1 A review differs from a program evaluation or audit in that it is a broad assessment of program performance, process, and operational issues. The United Nations Development Program defines a “review” as “distinct from evaluation and more closely associated with monitoring. They are periodic or ad hoc, often light assessments of the performance of an initiative and do not apply the due process of evaluation or rigor in methodology.” (UNDP 2009) Haiti is a very low - income country with a degraded ecological setting that faces repeated threats from multiple hazards. It is an excellent example of F ood for P eace (FFP) linking emergency and development funding through the Kore Lavi Title II program that serves as a model for the national social protection program. FFP effectively provides multiple and blended food assistance modalities as well as modalities th at are sequenced and layered where implementing partners provide a combination of different types of assistance through different modalities, depending on the needs of the Haitian population. This approach has shown to be an effective strategy for addressi ng both short - and long - term needs to improve resilience trajectories . F amilies were relocated to evacuation centers and received hot meals even before Hurricane Matthew struck in 2016 in part due to the versatil ity of Title II 202(e) - enhanced funds. As a n example of sequencing, this was followed by cash transfers and essential non - food items for immediate shelter and hygiene through close cooperation between FFP and the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance . FFP - funded implementing partners also provided unconditional cash transfers, Cash for Work, and agricultural vouchers in the months following the hurricane to ensure layered programming would meet beneficiaries’ needs. Beneficiaries in Kore Lavi areas al so received food voucher programmin g to meet ongoing food security needs . 6 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY 2017. While the review team was able to gather important information on the response to Hurricane Matthew and on the most r ecent drought (2014 - 2017) , FFP’s 2016 - 2017 response to Hurricane Matthew was recorded under fiscal year 2017 . 2 This review only reports funding through FY2016; review and evaluation documents from IPs and FFP on the Hurricane Matthew response have yet to be released. Graphs and figures in this report reflect the MBEP review period from FY2010 - 2016. Fo r further det ails, see Annexes 1 and 4. This report concludes with recommendations for FFP about good practices and approaches to continue, and those that FFP should consider modifying in Haiti. COUNTRY CONTEXT Haiti’s complex socio - political context, economic difficulties, and susceptibility to both slow - onset and high impact natural disasters , make achieving food securit y a continuous challenge. In recent years , Haiti has experienced tumultuous elections and protests, a weakeni ng currency, continued population growth, a binational migration crisis, urbanization, and a high level of poverty. A series of natural disasters have increased instability and have left the population struggling as the country braces itself for disaster after disaster . Many of these even ts contribute to the long - term challenges of increased soil degradation, aquifer depletion, loss of soil fertility, and river sedimentation that impact the livelihoods of the most vulnerable communities and affect food security across the country. The most recent data (2012) indicates that nearly 60 percent of the country lived below the national poverty line (W orld B ank 2017a) . It should be recognized that the shocks of recent years (see Table 1 ) are situated within a much longer and complex modern history of natural and economic crises , poor governance, civil unrest, and international aid strategies in Haiti. The impacts of recent emerg encies and donor response are discussed further below under Recent Emergencies and Market Response and in section 2. Table 1 : Summary of key events, shocks, and stressors in Haiti (2010 - 2016) and FFP emergency response 3 , 4 o January 12, 2010 — Magnitude 7.0 earthquake hits the capital Port - au - Prince with aftershocks in the region for days after, affecting three million people. The death toll numbers are inconclusive, but Haitian officials estimate over 300,000 people were killed . ( FFP’s 2010 earthquake response: $26.8 million ). o International donors pledge $5.3 billion for post - quake reconstruction at conference at U nited N ations headquarters (March 2010). o October 2010 — Cholera outbreak claims approximately 3,500 lives and triggers violent protests. The source of the outbreak is believed to be recently arrived U nited N ations soldiers. o November 2010 — Presidential and parliamentary elections. Announcement in December of inconclusive results of presidential election triggers violent pro tests. Michel Martelly wins second round of presidential election (March 2011). Hurricane Tomas brings heavy rain, causing floods and heavy damage. (FFP response to Hurricane Tomas: $5.9 million) o July 2011 — Cholera outbreak death toll reaches nearly 6,000. o November 2012 — Tropical Storm Isaac makes landfall in Haiti 2 Although FFP’s 2016 - 2017 response was recorded under FY17, the review team used internal monit o ring data from CRS’ response to the hurricane (See Annex 5 for more information on CRS’ Seed Voucher and Cash Tran sfer Program Responding to Hurricane - Affected Communities in Haiti’s Southern Peninsula). 3 For a summary of FFP’s response in Haiti, please see Section 2. Historical narrative of FFP market - based food assistance . 4 For additional details on FFP’s response, please see Annex 5 : Summary of FFP funding in Haiti . Funding amounts reflect the sum of the total of each project’s response per the original budget according to project documents. 7 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY Table 1 : Summary of key events, shocks, and stressors in Haiti (2010 - 2016) and FFP emergency response 3 , 4 o October 2012 — Hurricane Sandy destroys the homes of over 20,000 people, destroys crops, and exacerbates the cholera epidemic ( FFP’s combined response to Hurricane Sandy/Tropical Storm Isaac/drought and recovery efforts from 2012 - 2013 : $ 11.7 million ). o November/December 2013 — Protests in Port - au - Prince and other major cities continue through 2014, voicing discontent about the overdue election, unemployment, and corruption. o December 2014 — Prime Minister Laurent Lamothe resigns. o January 2015 — Drought conditions by the end of 2014 affecting one million people, particularly in Southeast, Northwest, and Artibonite regions. Drought continues through 2017, aggravating the situation of millions of food - insecure people (ReliefWeb 2017) . (FFP’s response to the multi - year drought and agricultural recovery efforts : $ 22. 9 million). o August 2015 — First round of long - overdue parliamentary elections. o February 2016 — Martelly ends his presidential term without a successor and the run - off presidential election is postponed indefinitely. Parliament appoints Jocelerme Privert as interim. o October 2016 — Hurricane Matthew kills hundreds and destroys thousands of homes. (FFP’s response to Hurricane Matthew: $9 million) o January 2017 — Provisional Electoral Council declares Jovenel Moise winner of November 2016 presidential elections, ending a political crisis over elec toral fraud that began October 2015. Source for key events, unless otherwise indicated: (BBC 2017) . Note: FFP budget information is aggregated across projects based on IP project document’s original budgets. LIVELIHOODS/ FOOD SECURITY: It is estimated that out of Haiti’s total population of over 10 million people , half are rural residents (FEWS NET 2015) . The plains and plateaus suitable for farming comprise only one third of the count ry’s total surface area, and population density is high overall (375 people per square kilometer); yet, the agriculture sector contributes to about 25 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP). Rural residents struggle to maintain their livelihoods in cr op production on small subsistence farms, with some small - scale animal production, and with various other income generation activities. FEWS NET recently found that “middle” and ‘better - off” households across the country’s four livelihood zones are more ab le to rely on their own crop production for their households’ energy needs than “poor” and “very poor” households, whose main source of food is market purchase s . With the economic and political challenges facing rural crop producers, poorer households have to rely on other sources of food and income. The household economy of poorer households depends on a larger number of income sources than the better - off categories of households, and their sources may be less stable and lower income, such as informal (cau sal) labor and petty trade (FEWS NET 2015) . The r ecurring shocks and stressors in Haiti have caused food production to decline over the past 30 years and have create d a dependence on food imports (USAID Haiti 2017) with negative trends in food self - sufficiency (Jolly, Bayard, and Nguyen 2011). Haiti imported 75 percent of rice and 5 percent of its maize needs in 2013/14 (pr e - drought), reaching record high imports of cereals in 2015 (FAO 2017a) . The impacts of natural and man - made disasters have strong implications for food security and for vulnerability to future climate events and natural disasters. Countrywide, about 3.6 million people are food insecure , of which 1.5 million people are severely food insecure (CNSA and WFP Haiti 2017a) . In 8 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY 2012, global acute malnutrition, severe acute malnutrition , and chronic malnutrition rates were estimated at 5 percent , 1 percent, and 22 percent, respectively (MSPP 2012) . 5 The food security and nutrition situation in Haiti is connected to poor infrastructure and the limited capacity of the government to provide adequate health care . A lack of a clean water supply is ex acerbated by flooding and extreme climate events and contribute s to worsening health. The lack of a central sewage system in Port - au - Prince makes hygiene and sanitation issues in the capital especially challenging , as waterborne diseases and outbreaks , suc h as cholera , undermine the fragile health status of a food insecure population. FINANCE AND TELECOMM UNICATIONS : Haiti’s weak legal and institutional frameworks contribute to a financial system that does not meet the needs of most Haitians, hamper ing economic growth and development (IMF 2008) . I n 2016, less than 2 percent of Haitian adults were registere d in the public credit registry (WB 2017a) , indicating that additional e fforts are needed to continue to expand financial inclusion . 6 However, the country’s first credit bureau opened in 2017, a sign that the financial investment climate in Haiti is improving (IDB 2017) . Recent data suggests that telecommunications coverage is also slowly improving. A growing number of Haitians are subscribing to mobile phone plans: almost 6 9 percent of the population subscribed in 2012 compared to 0.6 percent in 2000. Internet coverage r emained low with only 12.2 percent of the population using the internet in 2012. 7 RECENT EMERGENCIES AND MARKET RESPONSE : Haiti is currently recovering from a three - year drought , which , coupled with th e 2015 - 2016 El Niño phenomenon , has been particularly devastat ing for departments in Haiti where households have experienced chronic food insecurity (CNSA and WFP Haiti 2017a) . The rainfall deficit in the country’s main agricultural areas is one of the primary contribut ors to Haiti’s food insecurity as agricultural production is insufficient to meet the population’s food needs. The area of cultivated land i n 2016 was expected to be 20 - 30 percent below normal due to lower income s and higher - than - usual seed prices. The scope of crop losses has dramatically decreased farmer income and increased dependence on market food purchases. Medium - and longer - term downstream household impacts from the sustained reductions in income include , decreased savings, fewer agricultural labor opport unities, reduced school attendance, and higher malnutrition (CNSA and WFP Hai ti 2017a) . Along with the ongoing drought, on October 4, 2016, Haiti was struck by H urricane Matthew. The hurricane has had a particularly serious impact on the infrastructure and the livelihoods of communities in Haiti’s agricultural areas, affecting m ore than 60 percent of households in Grand Anse, South, Nippes, Southeast, Northwest, La Gonâve , and Artibonite departments (WFP Haiti 2017a) . The hurricane disrupted trade, agricultural - and livestock - based livelihoods, destroyed homes, further propelled migration , and increased internally displaced populations. The combination of damages from H urricane Matthew and the continued drought have made for two y ears of poor harvests and above - ave rage prices for domestic crops (FEWS NET and CNSA 2016) . Poor households are highly susceptible to these kinds of impacts. Between June and September 2017 , most departments in Haiti we re categorized as Phase 2 (stressed) or Phase 3 (crisis) per the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) (CNSA and WFP Haiti 2017b) . As noted above, modest agricultural 5 Most recent data available is from 2012. 6 Public credit r egistry coverage is expressed as the percentage of individual adults and firms “listed in a public credit registry with current information on repayment history, unpaid debts, or credit outstanding” (World Bank 2017a) . 7 The most recent available information for Haiti at the national - level is from 2012. 9 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY cereal production also led to a significant increase in commercial food and food aid imports for cereals in 2016, as compared to Haiti’s five - year average (from 2012/13 - 2016/17 ) (FAO 2017a) . Commercial maize and rice imports are expected to remain above average during the 2016 - 2017 marketing year , while commercial wheat imports will likely remain un changed from the previous year (FAO 2017a) . Rice is a particularly important cereal for Haiti , and multiple actors are working to improve domestic production . Rice accounts for abo ut one - quarter of total caloric consumption, and it is a significant crop related to Haiti - U.S. relations . Haiti imports rice from the United States, which accounts f or 10 percent of all U.S. - rice exports (IDB 2017) . With efforts by the Government of Haiti and international development actors , d omestic rice (paddy) production appear s to be recovering from the p ast years’ shocks . In 2016, 172,000 tons were produced, which is an improvement over the previous five - year average of 155,000 tons. T he forecast for 2017 shows even greater gains (FAO 2017a) . Despite these gains, it is expected that above - average imports for 2017 - 2018 will be needed to ensure availability and accessibility. The average r etail price for imported rice over the study period (2010 - 2016) was $1.01/kg 8 in Port - au - Prince and $1.16 /kg in other major markets (Hinche, Jacmel, and Jéré mie) . T his is lower than the average price of $1.93/kg for domestic rice purchased in Port - au - Princ e during the same time period, and significantly lower than in other major markets, approximately $ 2.56 /kg (FAO 2017b) . Table 2 shows the average, minimum, and maxim um prices for the staple foods of beans, rice, and maize in Port - au - Prince. Black beans, a critical protein for poor households, increased a full dollar per kilogram , registering its maximum price ($2.27) in October 2012. Local maize has been the least vol atile among these staple foods purchased in the capital, fluctuating from $0.46 /kg to $0.86/kg during the study period. Rice prices, both imported and local, dropped to their lowest prices toward the end of 2016. Table 2 : Retail p rice of staple foods in Port - au - Prince from 2010 - 2016 $ /Kg Avg Price Std dev. Min Price Min Date Max Price Max Date Beans (black) 1.64 0.29 1.26 10 - Jul 2.27 12 - Oct Beans (red) 2.08 0.17 1.68 13 - Jul 2.54 15 - Dec Maize meal (imported) 1.09 0.14 0.84 16 - Aug 1.39 12 - Sep Maize meal (local) 0.62 0.09 0.46 14 - Nov 0.86 13 - Mar Rice (imported) 1.01 0.14 0.73 16 - Aug 1.41 10 - Jan Rice (local) 1.93 0.26 1.37 16 - Nov 2.29 11 - Mar Source: FAO. 2017. GIEWS Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA) Tool. The market system of Haiti relies on a range of actors to distribute staple foods to urban and rural locales across the country. Notably, there are distinct supply chains for imported versus local goods . For both of these, small itinerant vendors ( the “ Mad ame Sara ”) , play an important role redistributing goods from wholesalers and retailers to consumers and other traders (WFP Haiti 2016a) . WFP’s market analysis in December 2015 found that m ost traders , who play a critical role in trade flows across the country, do not have access to credit ( 83 percent of Madame Sara and 52 percent of open - air retailer s surveyed), and many do not use the bank ing system for their business. The Madame Sara and smaller traders who deal mostly in local production have experienced significant challenges due to lack of supply because of drought - and shock - related production decrease s . Supply constraints are also cau sed by costly transportation and poor infrastructure and road conditions. The FEWS NET Haiti livelihoods profile (FEWS NET 2015) characterizes market conditions in the four main livelihoo d zones as the following: 8 Currency is in United States dollars unless otherwise noted. 10 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY 1) Dry Coastal Zone (maize and charcoal) of Artibonite and Northwest Departments : Households purchase most supplies and staples from local markets and occasionally from Port - au - Prince. Drought has severely affected local crop product ion. The few local crops that are sellable, are sold at local markets , where they are purchased by crop collectors or middlemen and shipped to Port - au - Prince and Gonaïves. Trade between those large consumer centers and crop - producing areas is extremely lim ited by road conditions, however, there is a growing number of motorbike taxis carrying passengers and goods. 2) North Tubers and Horticulture of North/Northeast Departments: Households purchase most staples (mainly imports) from local markets, which also ser ve as outlets for agricultural commodities (e.g., bananas, yams, sugar cane, citrus fruits, fish, other seafood). Markets are also filled with commodities from border areas of the Dominican Republic, causing strong competition between imported and locally - grown products. Due to poor roads, there is a designated collection site for larger outlets to pick up local crops for transport. 3) Central Plateau Area (maize and tubers): The rugged terrain and lack of paved roads limit access of crop - producers and local households to major markets. There are just four trade routes through the area. Middle and better - off households own donkeys and horses to help them transport goods to municipal and district markets. Commerce with the Dominican Republic is very important f or villages near the border. Many Haitians seek unskilled farm and nonfarm labor (construction or domestic work) and other services across the border. 4) Rice Plains of the Artibonite : This region is small, with high population density and multiple urban cen ters. Rice trade moves from production areas to municipal section markets to the large department markets and then on to consumer markets. The main rice sales season is from November to January. Local rice competes with imported and less - expensive rice fro m the Dominican Republic and East Asia . Potatoes, market garden vegetables, and bananas follow the same trade route as rice, but are also sold locally. The region’s production draws in seasonal farm labor from other areas. 2. HISTORICAL NARRAT IVE OF FFP MARKET - BASED FOOD ASSISTANCE T he United States government has been the largest donor to Haiti for many years . It has provided emergency and development funding in Haiti for approximately 50 years to help address disasters and political instability and to promote economic growth and securit y (USAID 2017b) . At the time of the field study ( June/ July 2017 ), 9 the Haiti Humanitarian Response Plan 2017 re quested $291.3 million and was funded at 19.2 percent ($55.9m) (OCHAa 2017) . The United States Government contributed $21.1 million, followed by the European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection Department (ECH O) ($12 m illion ), Canada ($4.3 million ), United Kingdom ($2.9 million ), and Japan ($2.6 million ), among others. The main recipients of the funding are agencies of the United Nations and international non - governmental organizations (NGO s ). The sectors with the largest humanitarian financial needs included: 1) food security, 2) shelter/non - food items, 3) cholera, 4) other health needs , and 5) early recovery and livelihoods, the latter , which was lacking any funds at that time (July 2017) . The United States su rpassed any other foreign government in relief funding to Haiti for the 2010 earthquake respons e . According to funding totals calculated by the U nited N ations Office of the Specia l Envoy for Haiti, multilateral and bilateral donors allocated approximately $13.3 billion to relief and recovery efforts in Haiti for 2010 - 2020; o f this , an estimated 48 percent ($6.4 billion) had been 9 Please see Annex 1: Approach for additional information on the review team’s field work and time frame. 11 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY disbursed by 2012 (UN Office for the Special Envoy for Haiti, n.d.) . For perspective in scale to Government of Haiti resources, the revenue of th e Government of Haiti from 2010 to 2012 totaled $3.2 billion. The United States was also the largest contributor to the flash appeal for Hurricane Matthew in 2016 (OCHAb 2017) , with more than $101 million provided by USAID FFP, USAID Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance ( OFDA ) , USAID Haiti, and the United States Department of Defense combined (USAIDa 2017) . Due to the sheer devast ation, and given the lack of functioning markets, f ood commodities w ere provided immediately in response to the hurricane by WFP, followed by MBEP, including unconditional cash transfers, and agricultural vouchers to supplement food assistance (USAIDa 2017) . Primary data from key informants indicated that good planning allowed families to relocate to evacuation centers where they received hot meals even before the Hurricane Matthew struck due to the versatility of 2 02 (e) - enhanced funds . This was possible thanks to funding sources from multiple USAID offices which allowed for a combination of assistance aimed at improving immediate nutrition and food security, but also activities geared at hygiene and sanitation, reco very operations, agriculture, livelihoods, and shelter (USAID Haiti 2017) . The complementarity , and flexibility, across offices targeting different activities was suit able to help the Haitian population address immediate needs and is expected to help them transition towards improved wellbeing outcomes. FFP ROLE IN HAITI D uring the review period (2010 - 2016) , the bulk of emergency food assistance from USAID FFP was provided t hrough EFSP and a smaller amount was provided through Title II 202(e) and 202(e) - e nhanced funds . 10 From FY 2010 to 2016, FFP - funded programs provided cash transfers ; vouchers ; locally and regionally purchased food ( LRP ); and complementary services . 11 , 12 Immediately following the 2010 earthquake, EFSP funding reached nearly $ 48 million , and m ost of the assistance was provided as cash transfers ( Figure 1 ) . In 2013, EFSP funding was used to respond to multiple emergencies – Hurricane Sandy, drought, and Tropical Storm Isaac – primarily through cash transfers and vouchers . In FY2016, prior to Hurricane Matthew, EFSP funding had reached $20 million, most of which was for cash transfers. While FFP funding for Hurricane Matthew was recorded under fiscal year 2017 13 (just outside of the review period of FY 2010 - 2016) , recent data indicates that FFP’s response to Hurricane Mathew has provided assistance to over one million people across the country (USAID 2017) . Primary data collected by the review team from k ey informants suggests that 202(e) - enhanced funds distributed in calendar year 2016 play ed a critical role in the emergency response . 10 Title II 202(e) - enhanced funding is also referred to by FFP, as “impact funds” or Enhanced Section 202(e). This report will refer to funds from this funding source as “202(e) - e nhanced.” 11 Complementary services, as described in the FY2015 Annual Program Statement are activities that support the primary food assistance interventions and can include activities focused on improving agriculture and food security (e.g., inputs such a s seeds and tools), livelihoods, and nutrition. 12 FFP and k ey i nformants report that 202(e) - enhanced funds were provided following Hurricane Matthew in 2016, funding that was used to provide for hot meals in evacuation centers. 13 Please note Table 1 below provides information received from FFP’s funding trackers for fiscal year 2010 - fiscal year 2016 and does not include FFP’s response to Hurricane Matthew . 12 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY Figure 1 : FFP emer gency funding (EFSP and 202(e) - enhanced per modality in Haiti, FY 2010 - 2016 Source: FFP funding trackers . IPs implemented a variety of food assistance modalities, summarized below in Figure 2 . Action Contre La Faim ( ACF ) most recently provided C ash for W ork ( CFW ) and agricultural vouchers t o promote agricultural recovery. World Vision provided food vouchers in re sponse to the exte nded drought while Catholic Relief Services ( CRS ) provided cash transfers (unconditional and CFW ) , and agricultural vouchers as a response to Hurricane Matthew. B oth WFP and CARE recently provided unconditional cash transfers and C ash for A ssets (CFA) in households affected by the ongoing drought. Outside of emergency funding, CARE, WFP, ACF and CRS continue to provide food vouchers through the Kore Lavi 14 Title II program, which serves as a model for the national social protection program. A full list of EFSP and Title II development programming in Haiti (2010 - 201 6 ) can be found in Annex 5 : Summary of FFP funding in Haiti . A number of IPs have taken steps to ensure that interventions enhance nutritional and food security outcomes. These include ensuring that emergency programming complements Title II development programming (i.e., Kore Lavi). IPs have also strategically scheduled distributions during the lean season (typically April to early June) to minimize disruptions of the agricultural season (e.g., cash distributions by CRS and vouchers by ACF) . 14 Kore Lavi is a social safety net program that is implemented by a consort ium made up of CARE, ACF, WFP, and World Vision. 3.2 12.5 4.0 5.9 9.0 5.4 3.0 35.0 3.6 7.4 3.8 3.9 17.0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 LRP Voucher Cash Transfer $ millions 13 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY TIMELINE Figure 2 : FFP - funded ( EFSP and 202(e) - enhanced ) activities in Haiti (2015 - 2017) Source: IP project documentation. 3 . PROGRAM DESIGN AND I MPLEMENTATION DESIGN DECISIONS: MO DALITY CHOICE AND CH ANGES, TARGETING STR ATEGY ANALYS E S FOR MODALITY CHOICE: The complex nature of Haiti’s recurrent disasters presents a challenge for designing and implementing effective emergency strategies. K ey stakeholders from IPs interviewed during the fieldwork noted that the type of disaster , the timing of assistance , and the complementarity with ongoing humanitarian and development strategies were taken into consideration when designing market - based interventions. Interviews with key stakeholders in the USAID FFP o ffice in Port - au - Prince 15 also highlight ed that differe nt modalities are needed base d on the emergency and on the needs of the population. I n general, individual IPs and IPs participating in consortium - driven programming make the ir choices based on local needs . H owever, most project documents did not explicit ly describe the reasoning behind selection of modality. With some exceptions, p roject documents lack a clear analysis of modality choice or comparison across modalities, particularly between vouchers and cash. Interviews with k ey stakeholders from IPs duri ng the field work suggest that individual IPs have established preferences for a variety of reasons, although comparisons across modalities were not mentioned in the literature . The review finds that, while IPs lacked a clear documented analysis of modalit y choice, reliance on their 15 For a complete list of key stakeholders interviewed, please see Annex 4. 14 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY knowledge of the local context and their experience implementing specific modalities was adequate. All IPs had already been working in their respective departments which allowed them to understand local characteristics, includin g with vendors and beneficiaries, before operationalizing market - based programming. Design decisions on modality selection: recent drought and Hurricane Matthew (201 4 - 2016) Justification for locally - procured in - kind food, as opposed to imported commodities , was usually evident in both project documents and interviews, as IPs tend to highlight that encouraging the use of local foods benefits Haitian markets which in turn help to improve resilience trajectories (please see Section 5. Development impacts below for more on impacts to markets) . The use of different types of cash, whether it’s a direct or indirect cash transfer ( CFW or CFA ) , is also detailed in IP project doc uments and in interviews as a choice that is typically based on the type of beneficiary being targeted – those who can work are usually provided CFW /CFA and those who may not be able to work (e.g., children) are provided direct unconditional cash transfers . Interviews with key informants suggest that paper vouchers are being replaced by electronic voucher s since vendor networks and partnerships with a local communications company (DIGICEL) have now been established. The CARE - led Kore Lavi program provides food vouchers to beneficiaries to target the consumption of specific commodities and to promote the availability of healthy foods in local markets. Key informants from CARE highlighted that vouchers were an appropriate choice to target food security outcom es through specific fresh and dry food commoditie s . Vouchers were also preferred in Kore Lavi programming as they have positive impacts on fostering growth in local markets (for more information please see Linking Emergency a nd Development Programming ) . A review of the project documents indicated that two of the seven IPs under this review 16 (WV and ACF ) selected a specific modality for their EFSP activities based on their experience with that modality in past programming. World Vision’s experience through the Kore Lavi Consortium 17 and ACF’s past experience with cash transfers, were deciding factors in selecting those modalit ies . World Vision’s Award Letter, (U SAID Haiti/World Vision Haiti 2016) for instance, sugges t ed that the IP’s use of food vouchers under the Emergency Food Assistance to La Gonâve would complement its own food voucher programming being implemented under Kore Lavi. Primary data suggests th at for World Vision, vouchers were a less risky option compared to other choices and that vouchers, which are provided by local actors, are easier to organize given transportation and logistic s issues in the island of La Gonâve , the project site area. CRS recently adopted agricultural input and seed vouchers as well as cash transfers (UCT) in its programming . T hese modalit ies were selected following an internal gap analysis after Hurricane Matthew and a CRS - led seed system security assessments ( SSSA ) that d emonstrated that household seed stocks had been depleted. The SSSA also indicated that quality seeds in local markets were available and that vouchers would not cause market or price distortions. In this program, vouchers were complementary to the cash tra nsfers , the latter of which were intended to help address immediate food insecurity. CRS also used FFP’s Modality Decision Matrix to determine that a combination of agricultural vouchers and UCTs needed to support agricultural livelihoods would best improve short - and medium - term food 16 The IPs included in this review include ACDI, ACF, CARE, CRS, Mercy Corps, WFP, and World Vision; please see Annex 5 17 Kore Lavi p rogramming is implemented by a CARE - led Consortium that serves as a model for the Government of Haiti social protection program. 15 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY security. The unconditional cash transfer was provided to help support households purchase basic needs – female beneficiaries from one FGD informed the review team that the ca sh allowed them to not have to consume all the crops they harvested . CRS used USAID’s Emergency Market Mapping and Analyses (EMMA) in their programming areas (South and Grand Anse Departments) to base their decision . Primary data from CRS indicated that ag ricultural vouchers were selected to help ensure that households in target areas would be able to invest in their farms to address beneficiaries’ food security and livelihoods outcomes. This approach, which was funded by both FFP and OFDA, allowed CRS to e ffectively provide households in the Grand Anse and South Departments assistance as a response to the Hurricane Matthew as well as assistance aimed at longer - term agriculture, livelihoods, and recovery ( s ee more under Donor Coordination). In the Northwest Department, ACF’s e xperience and past success implementing cash programs , specifically CFW , was one of the reason s for its selection of this modality. Project documents indicate d that cash was appropriate because food was available in the market and cash p rogramming would improve purchasing power to beneficiaries , empower local vendors, and boost the local economy. K ey informants indicated that cash was seen as a good choice since cash was needed in that area and since cash provides a large coverage area fo r beneficiary support. In some cases, IP s selected a modality based on complementarity with Kore Lavi activities. Cash used in CARE’s programming in response to the recent drought was selected to help support Kore Lavi beneficiaries. The program provided the extremely vulnerable Kore Lavi beneficiaries an additional $50/month through unconditional cash transfers and CFW to help prevent them from falling further into poverty. The project’s technical proposal also noted that , based on a comparison analysis between cash, general vouchers, vouchers linked to locally - produced food, in - kind food, and F ood for W ork ( FFW ) , “u ntied cash - based transfers provide the right income flexibility and enhanced choice for drought - affected populations to meet their varied bas ic needs (food and water, in particular ).” (CARE Haiti 2016 , 4 ) . CARE’s use of unconditional cash transfers was aimed at the most vulnerable households such as labor - poor households and households supporting migrant populations . The latter are a key target population in Haiti’s Central department , which borders the Dominican Republic. The program provided CFW given its alignment with department - level prioritie s in the Southeast department , which aimed at investing in public assets and supporting community - level resilience. Interviews with CARE key informants suggest that cash was an appropriate choice for large - scale needs because it can be quickly distributed to beneficiaries . WFP’s modality choice for its recent drought response under its Emergency Operation 200949 program was based on market assessments and on beneficiary and vendor preferences for cash. Interviews with WFP key stakeholders indicated that the flexibility afforded by cash was also one of the reasons for this choice. While WFP had some experience with cash programming in Haiti, its cash response in Haiti really grew in recent years through its emergency programming addressing the recent droug ht and Hurricane Matthew in the Southern Peninsula (for more information on WFP’s operation, see Mixed, Sequenced, a nd Layered Modalities section below). Interviews with WFP suggest that beneficiaries and vendors appreciate d receiving cash, and that cash t ransfers made it possible to provide rapid scale - up. Interviews with key informants from IPs suggests that cash is a valuable modality as it can be used to help beneficiaries purchase food and essential nonfood items such as roofing and housing material, m edical care, school fees, seeds and agricultural goods, livestock, and other investments in livelihoods. Despite concerns over corruption and the potential misuse of cash, the review team heard no accounts of cash being stolen, and stakeholders reported th at beneficiaries spen t cash on items needed for 16 | R EVIEW OF FFP MARKET BASED EMERGENCY FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS HAITI CASE STUDY survival and for their own livelihood development. 18 For example, CRS’ Post Distribution Monitoring (PDM) found that beneficiaries spent over 60 percent of their cash transfer on food. 19 Across both CARE and CR S sites, five of the nine beneficiary focus group discussions (FGDs) reported purchasing food immediately after receiving assistance, including rice, beans, and cooking oil. Male b eneficiaries in one FGD reported using both cash and vouchers to improve the ir home garden s. Female beneficiaries also mentioned that cash allowed them to pay off family expenses and small debts. Stakeholders from IPs interviewed during the field work highlighted that the need for cash preparedness was a deciding factor in underst anding if the local context could respond to an influx of cash, and if an adequate food supply and the necessary infrastructure to allow beneficiaries to purchase food if the commodity was accessible. Design decisions on modality selection for past progra mming (2010 - 201 3 ) IP responses and modality choice to previous disaster s, such as the 2010 earthquake, Hurricane Tomas, Hurricane Sandy, and Tropical Storm Isaac , varied , with some IPs clearly linking specific assessments to their rational e . According to project documents, ACDI/VOCA selected CFW to respond to Hurricane Sandy and Tropical Storm Isaac in 2013 based on an EFSP field assessment that indicated that while local and imported food was available in local markets, the most vulnerable households lack ed cash or access to the food. A review of t he project literature of the IPs ’ response s to the 2010 earthquake focused on in - kind food from locally - sourced suppliers according to an ACDI/VOCA MYAP on crop production and market price monitoring assessments in the Southeast Department an d an EMMA (Meissner et al. 2010) in which ACDI/VOCA staff participated . A WFP EFSA (2010) and FEWSNET reports also contributed to ACDI/VOCA’s assessments. The technical narrative also indicated that household - level purchasing power significantly decreased since livelihoods had been greatly impacted from the earthquake. The literature suggests that working with local suppliers was aimed at foster ing economic growth. Food vouchers were also used by the CARE - led Kore L’Avni Nou program to ensure beneficiaries’ ability to purchase food to improve food security. This allowed beneficiaries the flexibility to invest their own limited supply of cash for other vital expenses including minimizing debt